ch.6 evolution, ecology Flashcards
evolution
changes in populations, species or groups; changes in allele (traits) frequencies in populations over time
microevolution
the changes in allele frequencies that occur over time within a population due to mutation, selection, gene flow, gene drift, and nonrandom mating
macroevolution
the patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time. patterns determine phylogeny (evolutionary relationships among species and groups of species). these patterns can be used to establish a phylogenetic tree
Lamarck Theory: use and disuse
body parts can develop with increased usage and unused parts are weakened
Lamarck Theory: inheritance of acquired characteristics
body features acquired during one’s lifetime can be passed down to offspring.
this is incorrect, since only changes in genetic material of cells can be passed down to offspring
natural transformation of species
organisms produce offspring with changes, transforming each consecutive generation to be slightly more complex. Lamarck did not believe in extinction or the splitting of creating more species. This is an incorrect idea!
natural selection
survival of the fittest without any luck. allele frequencies increase or decrease in order to adapt to the environment
Neo-Darwinism
synthetic theory of evolution that combines Darwin’s theory with the influence of genetics that Darwin was unaware of to propose mechanisms responsible for evolutionary patterns
descent with modification
coined by Darwin, this occurs via natural selection. over time and generations, traits providing reproductive advantage becomes more common within the populaion
paleontology
fossils reveal prehistoric existence of extinct species, and are often found in sediment layers. deepest fossils represent the oldest specimens. large, rapid changes produce new species
fossil types
actual remains, petrification, imprints, molds, and casts
biogeography
the geography that describes the distribution of species. unrelated species in different regions of the world look alike when found in a similar environment. the supercontinent Pangea slowly broke apart to 7 continents due to continental drift
embryology
similar stages of development among related species establishes evolutionary relationships. gill slits and tails are found in fish, chickens, pigs, and human embryos
ontogeny
the development of an organism
phylogeny
the evolutionary development and diversification of a species
homologous structures
body parts that resemble one another between different species that descended from a common ancestor. e.g., bat forelimbs vs. bird forelimbs
analogous structures
body parts that resemble one another between different species that evolved independently. they have similar structures as adaptations to similar environments. these structures are also called homoplasies. e.g., bat wings vs. bee wings
molecular biology
this field examines nucleotide and amino acid sequences of DNA and proteins from different species. more than 98% of nucleotide sequences in humans and chimpanzees are identical. amino acids in the protein cytochrome c are often compared
comparative biochemistry
organisms with a common ancestor mean they have common biochemical pathways
stabilizing selection
the bell curve favors an intermediate, like how the average height in humans is in the middle
directional selection
the favoring of traits that is at one extreme of the range. traits at opposite extremes are selected against
industrial selection
the selection of dark-colored, melanic, varieties in various species of moths, like the peppered moth, as a result of industrial pollution. this is a specific type of directional selection
disruptive selection
this selection occurs when the environment favors extreme or unusual traits while selecting against common traits. for example, a certain environment may favor short and tall heights while the average height is selected against
sexual selection
the differential mating of males or females in a population
intersexual selection
females choose superior males, which increases the fitness of the offspring. because females invest more energy into their offspring, they want to maximize the quality of their offspring by picking fit males
intrasexual selection
when males compete and fight with other males for better mating opportunities. males increase fitness of offspring by maximizing quantity. intrasexual selection favors traits like musculature, horns, large stature etc.
sexual dimorphism
the differences in appearance of males and females, which is a form of disruptive selection. this occurs because female choice leads to traits and behaviors in males that are favorable to females. male traits like colorful plumage or elaborate mating behavior will be selected for by females
artificial selection
this is a form of directional selection carried out by humans when they breed favorable traits, and it not natural selection
mutation
new alleles could be introduced to the population with genetic mutations
sexual reproduction
genetic recombination such as crossing over, independent assortment, and random joining of gametes can occur during sexual reproduction
diploidy
diploid organisms have two copies of each chromosome. in heterozygous conditions, the recessive allele is stored for later generations, and thus more variations are maintained in the gene pool
outbreeding
mating with unrelated partners results in mixing of different alleles and creating new allele combinations
hybrid vigor (heterosis)
the superior quality of offspring resulting from crosses between two different inbred strains, species, or varieties of organisms. hybrid superior quality results from reducing deleterious recessive homozygous conditions and increasing heterozygous advantage
frequency-dependent selection (minority advantage)
occurs when least common phenotypes have a selective advantage. common phenotypes are selected against. rare phenotypes will increase in frequency and will then be selected against, repeating the cycle. for example, predators use search images of common phenotypes and find prey, allowing prey with rare phenotypes to escape. the rare prey phenotype eventually becomes common, and then the cycle repeats
neutral variation
these are variations that are passed down without any selective value, such as fingerprints in humans
geographic variation
variation of a species is dependent on climate or geographic conditions. a graded variation of a phenotype due to this is known as a cline. variation from north to south environments is a north-south cline
natural selection
the increase and decrease of allele frequencies due to adaptations to the environment
gene flow
the introduction and removal of alleles from the population when individuals leave (emigration) or enter the population
genetic drift
the random increase and decrease of an allele by chance. genetic drift has a larger effect on small populations
founder effect
when a small group of individuals migrate to a new location, the gene pool of the small group will be less than the original population. after successive generations, the genetic makeup will be unique from the original population