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DAT > ch.3 respiratory system > Flashcards

ch.3 respiratory system Flashcards

1
Q

tissues

A

groups of cells that have similar structure and function together as a unit

  1. epithelial: skin or internal organ covering
  2. connective: bone, cartilage, blood
  3. nervous
  4. muscle
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2
Q

negative feedback

A

bringing conditions back to their normal or homeostatic function

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3
Q

positive feedback

A

an action that intensifies a condition so that it is driven further beyond its normal limits (labor contraction, lactation, sexual orgasm)

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4
Q

respiration

A

movement of gases in and out; can also mean cellular respiration in which ATP is produced in the mitochondria

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5
Q

thermoregulation

A

control of exchange of heat with the environment

i. ectotherms/poikilotherms/cold-blooded - obtain body heat from the environment
- include invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and fish
ii. endotherms/homeotherms/warm-blooded - generate their own body heat and have a much higher basal metabolic rate (BMR) than ectotherms

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6
Q

regulatory mechanisms

A

i. evaporation - body heat is removed as liquid evaporates (endergonic process)
ii. metabolism - muscle contraction and other metabolic activities generate heat
iii. surface area - vasodilation or vasoconstriction of extremity vessels results in heat retention or removal
- blood flow to ears reduces body temperature, or countercurrent exchange keeps central parts of body warm

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7
Q

external respiration

A

entry of air into the lungs and the subsequent gas exchange between alveoli and blood

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8
Q

internal respiration

A

gas exchange between blood and cells

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9
Q

invertebrate respiration: Cnidaria

A

protozoa and hydra

i. direct with environment - have large surface areas and every cell is either exposed to the environment or close to it -> simple diffusion of gases directly with outside environment

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10
Q

invertebrate respiration: Annelids

A

i. the mucus secreted by earthworms provides a moist surface for gaseous exchange via diffusion
ii. the circulatory system brings oxygen to cells, and waste products back to the skin for excretion

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11
Q

invertebrate respiration: Arthropods (80% of all living species; insects, spiders, crustaceans)

A
  1. grasshopper - series of chitin-lined respiratory tubules called trachea that open to the surface via openings called spiracles, through which oxygen enters and carbon dioxide exits
    i) oxygen carriers such as hemoglobin are not needed due to the direct distribution and removal of respiratory gases
    ii) the moistened tracheal ending ease the rate of diffusion
  2. spider - have book lungs that are stacks of flattened membranes enclosed in internal chambers
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12
Q

invertebrate respiration: fish

A

when water enters the mouth, it passes over the gills, which are evaginated structures that create a large surface area that take in oxygen and deposit carbon dioxide. Gills can be external/unprotected or internal/protected, and water exits via the operculum (gill cover)

Pro Tip: countercurrent exchange - exchange between opposing movements of water which maximizes diffusion of O2 into the blood and CO2 into water

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13
Q

Plant respiration

A
  1. photosynthesis normally only takes place during the day
    i. glucose is produced and oxygen is released for us to breathe
  2. plants undergo aerobic respiration similar to animals
  3. glucose -> 2ATP + 2 pyruvic acid
    ii. gases diffuse into the air space by entering and leaving through stomata of leaves or lenticels in woody stems
    iii. anaerobic respiration takes place in simple plants when oxygen is lacking
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14
Q

lungs

A
  • invaginated structures made of two sub-portions
  • the left lung is smaller and consists of 2 lobes, while the right lung is made of 3 lobes
  • the left lung is smaller to accommodate the heart
  • lungs have a membranous cover known as the pleurae, which have two pleura players: the visceral and parietal pleura
  • space in between these two layers is the intrapleural space
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15
Q

visceral pleura

A

lines the surface of the lungs

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16
Q

parietal pleura

A

lines the inside of the chest cavity

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17
Q

intrapleural space

A

has negative (lower) pressure relative to the atmosphere. if stabbed, air rushes in and causes lungs to collapse

  • the pressure of this intrapleural space decreases as we inhale: as the diaphragm contracts, the lung cavity opens up, and this increase in volume equates to a decrease in pressure
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18
Q

what is CO2 transported as

A

HCO3- (bicarbonate ion)

transported in plasma, or liquid part of the blood. the conversion of CO2 into HCO3- is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase via the following reaction:
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-
this process occurs in RBCs. some of the CO2 can also mix directly with the plasma as a gas, or can bind with hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin

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19
Q

alveoli

A
  • where gas exchange between the circulatory system and lungs occurs
  • coated with surfactant, a liquid covering that reduces the surface tension, preventing H2O from collapsing the alveoli

2 types of epithelial cells in human alveoli:
type 1- structural support
type 2- produce surfactant

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20
Q

nose

A

filters, moistens, and warms incoming air. the mucus secreted by goblet cells traps large dust particles here

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21
Q

pharynx

A
  • throat
  • passageway for food and air
  • dust and mucus are swept back here by cilia for disposal via spitting or swallowing
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22
Q

larynx

A
  • voice box
  • if non-gas enters the cough reflex activates
  • after epiglottis
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23
Q

trachea

A
  • epiglottis covers the trachea during swallowing
  • contains C-shaped ringed cartilage covered by cilia and mucus cells
24
Q

bronchi/bronchioles

A

two bronchi, which enters the lungs and branch into narrower bronchioles

25
Q

alveoli

A

each bronchiole branch ends in these small sacs, which are surrounded by blood-carrying capillaries

26
Q

diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood

A

O2 diffuses through the alveolar wall, through the pulmonary wall, into the blood, and into RBCs
CO2 follows the same sequence, but in reverse

27
Q

O2 is transported through the body via ____ in RBCs

A

hemoglobin

28
Q

diffusion between blood and cells

A

O2 diffuses out of RBCs, across capillary walls, into interstitial fluids and across cell membranes

29
Q

volume and pressure during inhalation

A

volume increases
pressure decreases

30
Q

volume and pressure during exhalation

A

volume decreases
pressure increases

31
Q

Bohr Effect

A
  1. high CO2 - when we have a high concentration of CO2, it diffuses into the blood and into the RBC where carbonic anhydrase converts it into H2CO3. this then becomes HCO3- and H+
    - this build up of H+ explains why high [CO2]=low pH
    - hemoglobin now comes into play as it interacts with H+ to form a more reduced form of hemoglobin that has lower affinity for O2, and greater affinity for CO2, causing O2 to be released
  2. low pH - more H+, hemoglobin structure is altered to release oxygen
  3. high temperature - at higher blood temperatures, hemoglobin becomes less likely to bind to oxygen and releases oxygen to tissues
  4. high 2,3-DPG - 2,3-DPG (2,3-BPG) is produced from an intermediate compound in glycolysis and decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. at low O2 levels, an enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of 2,3-DPG, hence, high 2,3-DPG = low affinity of hemoglobin for O2
    - anemia
    - at high O2 levels, oxyhemoglobin inhibits the enzyme that synthesizes 2,3-DPG
32
Q

Haldane Effect

A

describes how the deoxygenation of blood increases its ability to carry CO2. when there is an increase in CO2 pressure, there is an increased CO2 blood concentration. however, when hemoglobin is saturated with oxygen, its capability to hold CO2 is reduced

33
Q

medulla oblongata

A

signals the diaphragm to contract, completing the following:

  1. when partial pressure of CO2 increases, the medulla stimulates an increase in the rate of ventilation
  2. the diaphragm, a skeletal muscle innervated by the phrenic nerve, is signaled to contract
    i. the diaphragm is also the only organ which only and all mammals have, and can’t live without
  3. when the lungs inflate, the thoracic pressure decreases as the thoracic cavity size increases

this pattern repeats over and over, giving us a steady breathing rate

34
Q

central chemoreceptors

A

in medulla
indirectly monitor [H+] and CO2 in the cerebrospinal fluid

35
Q

peripheral chemoreceptors

A

located in carotid arteries and aorta and function to monitor the blood concentration of CO2, O2, and pH via H+

36
Q

ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells

A

found in trachea and upper respiratory system; may contain goblet cells for mucus production

37
Q

emphysema

A

a pathology marked by destruction of the alveoli

38
Q

effects of smoking

A

smoking can damage cilia of respiratory cells and allow toxins to remain in the lungs
i. mucus produced by goblet cells increases, and lungs have decreased means of moving mucous out, leading to a persistent pet unproductive cough
ii. can lead to bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer

39
Q

structure of hemoglobin

A

4 polypeptide subunits, with each hosting a heme cofactor (an organic molecule with an iron atom in the center)
i. each iron atom can bind with one O2 molecule
ii. exhibits cooperativity - when one O2 binds, the rest of the O2 molecules bind easier, hence explaining the sigmoidal curve graph of hemoglobin binding. the same is true for the opposite: when one O2 is released, the rest are released easier

40
Q

as O2 pressure _____, O2 saturation of hemoglobin increases

A

increases

this is ideal: in the lungs we are O2 rich and want to hang onto it, but in the tissues, we are O2 poor (lower O2 pressure) so the hemoglobin will release O2 to tissues

41
Q

O2 saturation of hemoglobin also depends on CO2 pressure, pH, and temperature of blood

A
  1. the oxygen dissociation curve shows the percentage of hemoglobin bound to O2 at various partial pressures of O2
    ii. curve is shifted right (O2 released easier) when there is an increase in CO2, decrease in pH, increase in 2,3-DPG, or increase in temperature
    iii. Bohr Effect - hemoglobin binding affinity decreases under condition of low pH (high CO2/H+) which leads to O2 loads released by hemoglobin since both O2 and H+ compete for hemoglobin binding sites
42
Q

what enters at the tissues to balance bicarbonate diffusing out of the cells?

A

Cl-

43
Q

respiratory acidosis

A

results from inadequate ventilation; we don’t clear enough CO2 and it builds up, so more H+ is formed, lowering the pH

44
Q

respiratory alkalosis

A

results from breathing too rapidly (hyperventilation); we are losing CO2 too quickly, so H+ and HCO3- start combining to form more CO2, and the pH begins rising

45
Q

myoglobin

A
  • single subunit shape
  • saturates quickly and releases in situations of very low oxygen “emergency situations”
46
Q

fetal hemoglobin curve

A

shifted left of the adult hemoglobin curve because the structure has a higher binding affinity in order to grab O2 from maternal blood

47
Q

carbon monoxide

A

CO
has a 200x greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen does (forms carboxyhemoglobin) and requires administration of pure O2 to displace it once bound

48
Q

avian respiration

A

birds have anterior and posterior air sacs that don’t mix oxygenated and deoxygenated blood - very efficient

49
Q

tidal volume

A

the volume of air that is normally inhaled or exhaled in one quiet breath

50
Q

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation

51
Q

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation

52
Q

residual volume (RV)

A

the amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation; air that cannot be exhaled

53
Q

vital capacity (VC)

A

the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inspiration; expressed as IRV + VT + ERV

54
Q

inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

the volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal exhalation; expressed as VT+IRV

55
Q

functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

the volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal exhalation; expressed as ERV+RV

56
Q

total lung capacity (TLC)

A

the maximum amount of air that the lungs can accommodate; expressed as IC+FRC

57
Q

most efficient type of respiration/circulation

A

GILLS AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

DAT (18 decks)

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