Ch.1 Final Part Flashcards
When Amyloid Deposits occur in a single organ, they are misfolded proteins that the body has trouble degrading.
Localized Amyloidosis
Non-mutated serum, transthyretin deposits in the heart. Non-symptomatic. Occurs overtime. 25% of people have it by the age of 80.
Senile Cardiac amyloidosis
Mutated transyhyretin causes restrictive cardiomyopathy. 5% of Americans of African descent have this. Ex. FMF
Familial form of Amyloidosis
Issue where heart cannot contract properly due to all the protein deposits surrounding it.
Cardiomyopathy
Amylin is derived from what?
Insulin
Chronic secretion of high amount of insulin leads to amylin deposits in the isle of the pancreas which causes the organ to loose ability to function;therefore no insulin can be produced.
insulin deficient
Type 2 diabetes
Beta- amyloid derived from APP (amyloid precursor protein) , deposited in brain forming amyloid plaques resulting in what disease?
Alzheimer disease
The gene for APP is located on what chromosome?
Chromosome 21
Trisomy 21=
Down syndrome
Since APP gene is located on chromosome 21, people with trisomy 21 often develop ___ by the age of 40
Alzheimer’s because more expression of APP
Protein producing cancer, carcinoma of the thyroid were calcitonin overproduction deposits within the tumor.
Medullary Carcinoma
Cystic fibrosis, Tay-sac, Familial hypercholestorlemia are all examples of what?
Disease causes by misfolded proteins that are degraded leading to their deficiency
The ccumulation of misfolded proteins in a cell can stress compensatory pathways in the ___ and lead to cell death by apoptosi
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Retinitis pigmentosa, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are examples of what?
Diseases Caused by Misfolded Proteins That Result in ER Stress-Induced Cell Loss
Each cell has a capacity for ____ . More stressor the more likely you are to overwhelm cells capacity to withstand stress.
Injury
Neurons have a small capacity to deal with _____ thus highly susceptible to it while skeletal muscles are more resistant (via anaerobic respiration)
Ischemia
Renal artery atherosclerosis will causes atrophy of some tissues, example of?
Slow, chronic, ischemia
Renal artery embolus, results in immediate cell injury. Much worse
sudden acute ischemia
Low oxygen in tissues, results in no final oxygen electron receptor in ox. phos.= less ATP= cellular injury.
Hypoxia
What happens when there is less/reduced ATP in cells?
Can’t power the Na or Ca+ pumps
Ischemia compromises what?
The delivery of substrates for glycolysis= non aerobic metabolism or aerobic energy generation.
Does hypoxia or ischemia causes more rapid and severe tissue injury to the cell?
Ischemia
-reduced/stopped blood flow
-Low blood oxygen(hypoxemia)
-Blood O2 carrying capacity diminished
3 causes of hypoxia?
Low partial pressure of oxygen in blood.
Hypoxemia
Decrease RBC mass. Blood O2 carrying capacity diminished, example of hypoxia.
Anemia
Decreased blood flow to tissues or organs
Ischemia
Physical causes of ischemia?
-Limiting caliber of artery= reduced arterial perfusion atheroscelorsis
-Stenosis/spasm
Blocking arteria flow due to backed up or decreased venous drainage (Budd-chiari syndrome/ blocked IVC) results in what?
Results in hypoxia
Shock- generalized hypotension in the entire system which causes poor tissue perfusion results in
Results in hypoxia
Stimulates the synthesis of several proteins that help the cell to survive in the face of low oxygen
hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) family.
-VEGF= stimulate growth of new vessels and increase blood flow = more oxygen
-Other protiens= changes in cell metabolism, stimulation uptake of glucose (from circulation/hydrolysis of glycogen) and glycolysis; anaerobic glycolysis(produce atp for cells without oxygen)
Proteins induced by Hypoxia inducible factor family
What tissues can survive loss of oxygen better liver/striated muscles or brain?
Liver/striated tissues
depeletion of ATP and sitting off of the Na pump results in what?
Decreased intracellular pH which causes changes in the activities of many enzymes, increased generation of ROS, and defects in protein synthesis.
What conditions cause hypoventilation (reduce breathing, O2 entering)
Increased PAco2 resulting in decreased PAo2.
what causes a decreased barometric pressure, resulting in reduction of PAo2
High altitude
Hypoventilation, high altitude, diffusion issue, decreased al result in what?
Hypoxemia (low PAo2 in blood)
When PAo2 (pressure of oxygen in the alveoli) is not able to push as much O2 into the blood.
This is a ____ issue
Diffusion issue
Diffusion barrier issue of Oxygen when carried btw the alveolar space & blood vessel is thicker.
What disease is this?
Interstitial pulmonary fibrosis
When blood bypasses oxygenated lung due to heart circulation defects like R/L shunting or oxygen is unable to reach blood due to ventilation issues.
Ventilation/Perfusion mismatch
Toxins act directly by combining with a critical molecular component or cellular organelle.
Ex. Chemo drugs, toxins produced by infectious pathogens.
Direct-acting toxins
toxic chemicals are only active after they have been converted to reactive metabolites, which then act on target cells
Latent toxins
Ex. of hypoxia, CO binds hemoglobin more strongly than oxygen, PAO2 normal but SAo2 decreased.
headache, red appearance, death
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Iron in heme is oxidized to Fe3+, CANT bind oxygen-PAO2 normal but SAo2 decreased.
oxidative stress
Cyanosis, chocolate colored blood
Methoglobienmia
How to treat Methoglobienmia?
Methylene blue IV, pushes the reduction of Fe3+ back to Fe2+ (can carry oxygen better!)
refers to an enlargement of cells that results in increase in the size of the organ.
Hypertorphy
increase in the number of cells in an organ that stems from increased proliferation (mitosis), either of differentiated cells or, in some instances, progenitor cells.
Hyperplasia
Cells just increase in size b/c they contain more amount of structural proteins & organelles.
Pure Hypertorphy
Physiologic or pathologic, causes by either an increased functional demand or by growth factor hormone stimulation. gene activation
Hypertropy
Occurs during pregnancy, estrogen stimulated smooth muscle hypertrophy & hyperplasia.
Nucleuses become small because the smooth muscle cells expand and become larger.
Physiologic enlargement of the uterus
disorders that increase intracardiac pressures, such as narrowing of the aortic valve (stenosis) .
Myocardial cells have persistent workload increase; adapting by enlarging to generate higher contractile force.
Pathologic Hypertrophy
What does a irreversible hypertrophied myocardium look like?
The ventricular walls are thicker
What does reversibly injured hypertrophied myocardium look like?
shows functional compromise without gross or light microscopic changes, or reversible changes like cellular swelling and fatty change.
What does necrosised myocardium look like?
the transmural light area in the posterolateral left ventricle represents an acute myocardial infarction
Ex. of pathological hyperplasia
Endometrial hyperplasia, which can progress to dysplasia and become cancerous.
exemplified by the proliferation of the glandular epithelium of the female breast at puberty and during pregnancy
Hormonal Hyperplasia
which residual tissue grows after removal or loss of part of an organ.
Ex. part of liver resected, mitotic division occurs and restores liver cells.
Compensatory hyperplasia
reduced size of an organ or tissue caused by reduction in the size and number of cells
Atrophy
Causes of Atrophy
-Decrease in workload & stress
-nerve, blood, nutrients reduced= less cells.
Decrease cell number occurs via ____
Apoptosis
Decrease in cell size occurs via ____ tagging of cellular components for proteasome degredation.
Send everything back o blood
Ubiquitin tagging
Shrinking of the brain is a what? and this happens why?
Less use, atrophy
Autophage of cellular components involves generation of _____ vacuoles which are later fused with lysosomes
Autophagic
change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type.
Metaplasia
Metaplasia is arrises from reprogramming of _____ cell to differentiate along a new pathway rather than a phenotypic change of differentiated cells
Stem cell
change in the respiratory epithelium (due to prolonged smoking).
Normal relatively delicate ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the trachea and bronchi ->
replaced by tough stratified squamous epithelial cells= which are better suited to withstand the noxious chemicals in cigarette smoke.
Epithelium Metaplasia
normal stratified squamous epithelium of the lower esophagus may undergo metaplastic transformation to gastric or intestinal-type columnar epithelium.
Example of what?
Metaplasia
The influences that induce metaplastic change, if persistent, predispose to malignant transformation of the epithelium=
cancer
Metaplasia is ___ if stress is resolved in the case of gastric reflux cel changes if pt. takes antacids
Reversible
______ deficiency is linked to metaplasia where squamous epithelium of conjunctiva changes to stratified dekeritanized epithelium= what disease?
Vitamin A deficiency Keratomalacia
_____ connective tissue under go metaplasia
mesenchymal
When muscle tissue undergo metaplasia into bone (ossification)
Myositis ossificans
Discord in cell growth, no cohesion, pre-cancerous cell proliferation with poor structure.
Dysplasia
dysplasia that is a precursor to cervical cancer
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)
(Development of abnormal cells in cervix)
Dysplasia often arrises from longstanding pathologic _____(endometrial ____) or ______ (batter esophagus)
Hyperplasia; endometiral
of
Metaplasia
Occurs in the mouth, results of smoking, underside of tongue, irregular looking tissue.
conduct biopsy
Mucosal dysplasia
Failure of cell production during embryogenesis
embryological
Aplasia
Decrease in cell production during embryogenesis resulting in smaller than usual organ or tissue size
Hypoplasia
Unilateral renal angigenisis (only 1 kidney)
Ex. of aplasia
Decrease in enamel cell production. Teeth look chalky white.
Enamel hypoplasia
abnormal accumulation of triglycerides within parenchymal cells.
Fatty Change (Steatosis)
phagocytic cells may become overloaded with lipids (triglycerides, cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters) in several pathologic processes characterized by increased intake or decreased catabolism of lipids
Cholesterol and Cholesteryl Esters.
visible _____ accumulations are less common than lipid accumulations; they may occur because of increased uptake or increased synthesis
Proteins
associated with abnormalities in the metabolism of either glucose or glycogen.
glycogen
typically indigestible pigments, such as carbon, lipofuscin (breakdown product of lipid peroxidation), or hemosiderin (usually due to iron overload
Pigments
Results from combination of multiple and progressive cellular alterations, Accumulation of DNA damage and mutations, Exacerbated by chronic diseases, especially those associated with prolonged inflammation, and by stress; slowed down by calorie restriction and exercise
programed changes with genetic influences
Cellular Aging
Carbon, Lipofusion, melanin, hemosiderin
All examples of pigments that can accumulate in the cell.
