Ch 4 - Cognition, Language

Question 1

cognition

Answer 1

• how brain processes and reacts to information in the world
• large frontal lobe accounts for humans greater cognition

Question 2

dual coding theory

Answer 2

both verbal and visual associations are used to process and store information

Question 3

information processing model

Answer 3

• thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage
• stimuli must be analyzed by the brain - not automatically responded to
• situational modification - use one situation to help solve another problem
• problem solving is dependent on cognitive level, context, and complexity of situation

Question 4

cognitive development

Answer 4

• development of ability to think adn solve problems across the lifespan
• children first master physical tasks and the environment
• then abstract thinking
• Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
  
  • sensorimotor
  • preoperational
  • concrete operational
  • formal operational

Question 5

About Jean Piaget model

Answer 5

• infants learn via instintual interaction with the environment
• schema - organized pattern of behavior and thought
  
  • concepts, behaviors, sequence of events
• adaptation - new information placed into different schemas
  
  • assimilation - classify new info into existing schema
  • accommodation - modify existing schema to encompass new info

Question 6

Sensorimotor stage

Answer 6

• birth - 2yo
• manipulate environment to meet needs
• primary circular reactions - repetition of body movements that occured by chance
• secondary circular reactions - manipulation focused on something outside of the body
  
  • used to get response from environment
• object permanence - understand that objects exist even when out of view
  
  • marks end of this stage
  • representational thought - create mental representations of external objects and events

Question 7

preoperational stage

Answer 7

• 2yo - 7yo
• symbolic thinking - pretend, play make believe, imagination
• egocentrism - inability to imagine what another person may think
• centration - focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon
  
  • conservation - ability to understand more than one aspect of an object
  • children lack conservation when they think a taller cup of water always has more water than a shorter fatter cup

Question 8

concrete operational stage

Answer 8

• 7yo - 11yo
• understand conservation
• consider prospective of others
• logical thought applied to concrete objects

Question 9

formal operational stage

Answer 9

• 11yo +
• think logically about abstract ideas
• problem solve

Question 10

cultural effect on cognitive development

Answer 10

• influence rate of development
• influence areas of focus such as social learning, cultural traditions, knowledge
• Lev Vygotsky - cognitive development is determined by internalization of culture, interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, language

Question 11

Cognitive change with aging

Answer 11

• fluid intelligence - problem solving skills
  
  • peak in early adulthood, decline with age
• crystallized intelligence - learned skills and knowledge
  
  • peak in mid adulthood, decline with age
• activities of daily living - eating, bathing, dressing, mobility
  
  • linked to intelletual ability
  • education, socailization, stimulation protect from decline in intelligence
• dementia - caused by loss of intellet and then loss of function
  
  • maybe caused by vascular dementia - high blood pressure and microscopici closts that cause stroke
  • Alzheimers causes dementia

Question 12

delirium

Answer 12

• rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes
  
  • electrolyte/pH disturbance, malnutrition, low blood sugar, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, pain

Question 13

Factors that effect cognitive development

Answer 13

• brain disorders, genetics, chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, long term drug use, environment
• parenting style
• chemical exposure, illness, injury, trauma during birth (reduce oxygen to brain)
• fetal alcohol syndrome
• shaken baby syndrome

Question 14

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Answer 14

• skin fold at corner of eyes
• low nasal bridge
• short nose
• no groove between upper lip and nose
• small head
• small eye openings
• small midface
• thin upper lip
• slowed cognitive development

Question 15

mental set

Answer 15

approach similar problems in the same way

can limit abstract problem solving

Question 16

functional fixedness

Answer 16

inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

Question 17

Types of problem solving

Answer 17

• trial and error - effective when limited number of solutions
• algorithms - formula or procedure
  
  • mathematical or set of instructions
• deductive reasoning - top down reasoning, draw conclusions based on information and rules given
• inductive reasoning - bottom up reasoning, create theory via generalizations

Question 18

heuristics effect on problem solving

Answer 18

• rules of thumb - simplified principles used to make decisions
• availability heuristic - how likely is something
  
  • how easily can similar instances be imagined
• representativeness heuristics - categorizing items on basis of if they fit into prototypical, stereotypical, or representative images of the category
  
  • base rate fallacy - using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring numerical info/statistics

Question 19

bias and overconfidence effect on problem solving

Answer 19

• disconfirmation principle - evidence from testing showed the solution doesnt work
• confirmation bias - tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals beliefs and rejects info against them
  
  • overconfidence - interpret decision, knowledge and beliefs as infallible
• belief perserverance - inability to reject particular belief despite clear evidence against it
• IMPEDE ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE

Question 20

intuition effect on problem solving

Answer 20

• act on perceptions that may not be supported by evidence
• may improve with experience
• recognition-primed decision model - sort through info to match a pattern that has been seen in the past

Question 21

emotion effect on problem solving

Answer 21

• subjective experience of a person in a certain situation
• influences problem solving

Question 22

multiple intelligences

Answer 22

• 7 types of intelligence
• linguistic and logical math
  
  • 2 most valued in western culture. tested on IQ test
• musical
• visual spatial
• bodily kinesthetic
• interpersonal
• intrapersonal

Question 23

IQ

Question 24

• intelligence quotient
• Alfred Binet
  
  • Stanford-Binet IQ test
• IQ = (mental age / chronological age) * 100
• g factor - general intelligence factor
  
  • performance on cognitive tasks are correlated to a factor that is measured by an IQ test
• Intellect is hereditary
• effected by education

Question 25

consciousness

Answer 25

level of awareness of the world and ones existence within the world

• states - alertness, sleep, dreaming, altered state
  
  • altered - sickness, dementia, delirium, coma

Question 26

alertness

Answer 26

• awake and able to think
• EEG shows brain in waking state
• high cortisol levels
• reticular formation - in brainstem
  
  • communicate with cortex to keep it awake
  • disruption results in a coma

Question 27

sleep

Answer 27

• studying using an EEG - avergae electrical pattern
• 90 minute cycles
• beta waves - high frequency, alert and tending to mental task, concentration. Neurons randomly firing
• alpha waves - awake and relaxing with eyes closed, slower than beta, synchronized
• stage 1 - theta waves - slow frequency and irregular, high voltage
• stage 2 - theta waves with sleep spindles (rapid waves) and K complexes (spikes)
• stage 3 and 4 - slow wave sleep (SWS)
  
  • delta waves - low frequency high voltage
  • hard to wake someone up
  • cognitive recovery, declarative memory consolidation, increase growth hormone release
• Stage 1 - 4 are nonrapid eye movement (NREM)
• REM sleep - between cycles of NREM
  
  • paradoxical sleep - EEG, HR, breathing mimics wakefulness but person is asleep
  • procedural memory consolidation

Question 28

sleep cycles

Answer 28

• 50 min in children, more time in SWS
• 90 min in adults
• complete progression through sleep stages
• SWS dominates in early night
• REM dominates later
• disrupted sleep - memory loss, decrease cognitive ability, mood, motor skills

Question 29

Circadian Rhythms

Answer 29

• daily internal cycle or sleep/wake
• 24hrs
• melatonin - produced by pineal gland that is controlled by hypothalamus
• decrease light - retina send message to hypothalamus and more melatonin secreted by pineal gland
• cortisol - from adrenal cortex, slowly increase in morning due to increased light
  
  • corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from hypothalamus
  • CRF causes adrenocorticotropic hormine (ACTH) from anterior pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol release
  • causes wakefulness

Question 30

dreaming

Answer 30

• 75% in REM
• activation-synthesis theory - caused by widespread, random neural activation
  
  • cortex tries to put together random thoughts - bizarre dreams
• problem solving dream theory - untethered by rules, new solutions
• cognitive process dream theory - sleeping counter part of consciousness
• neurocognitive models - unify bio and psych by correlating cognitive with measured physiological changes

Question 31

dyssomnias

Answer 31

• difficult to sleep or avoid sleep
• insomnia - difficulty falling asleep
  
  • related to anxiety, depression, medication
• narcolepsy - lack of control over onset of sleep
  
  • cataplexy - loss of muscle control and sudden REM sleep, emotional trigger possible
  • sleep paralysis - unable to move while being awake
  • hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations - while going to sleep or awakening
• sleep apnea - inability to breathe while sleeping
  
  • obstructive
  • central - brain fails to send signals to diaphragm

Question 32

parasomnias

Answer 32

• night terrors - intense anxiety during SWS, child hard to wake
• sleepwalking/somnambulism - during SWS
  
  • often no recollection and return to bed
• sleep deprivation - irritability, mood disturbance, decrease performance, slow reaction time
  
  • REM rebound - earlier onset and greater REM

Question 33

hypnosis

Answer 33

• appear to be in control, but in a highly suggestible state
• hypnotic induction - relax subject and increase subjects concentration

Question 34

meditation

Answer 34

• quieting of the mind
• buddhism, hinduism, Taoism, Judaism
• decreased heart rate and blood pressure
• EEG similar to stage 1 of sleep

Question 35

depressants

Answer 35

reduce nervous system activity

relaxation and reduced anxiety

alcohol

Barbiturates and benzodiazepines

Question 36

Alcohol as a depressant

Answer 36

• increase activity of GABA receptor, Cl- channel that causes hyperpolarization
  
  • brain inhibition, diminished arousal
• increase dopamine - mild euphoria
• alcohol myopia - inability to recognize consequences of actions, short sighted view of the world
• widely abused
• alcoholism - runs in families, higher in low SES
  
  • children of alcoholism parents are more likley to suffer from major depressive disorder
  • cirrhosis, pancreatic damage, ulcers, GI cancer, brain disorders
  • Werniche-Korsakoff Syndrome - deficiency of thiamine
    
    • severe memory impairment, change mental status, loss of motor skills

Question 37

Barbiturates and Benzodiazapines

Answer 37

• barb - used to reduce anxiety and improve sleep
• replaced by benzodiazepines - less prone to OD
• increase GABA activity and cause relaxation
• highly addictive
• can OD when used with alcohol

Question 38

Stimulants

Answer 38

• increase arousal
• increase frequency of action potentials
• amphetamines - increase release dopamine, norepi, serotonin and decrease reuptake
  
  • reduce appetite, decrease sleep, increase HR and BP
  • euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, paranoia
  • suffer from withdrawal
• cocaine - coca plant, decrease reuptae of dopamine, norepi, serotonin
  
  • simliar to amphetamines
  • anesthetic and vasocontrict
    
    • can lead to heart attack and stroke
  • crack - smoked, highly addictive
• ectasy (MDMA) - hallucinogen plus amphetamine
  
  • increase HR, BP, blurry vision, nausea, hyperthermia, euphoria
  • sense of well being and connectedness

Question 39

Opiates/Opioids

Answer 39

• opium derivatives, poppy plant
• bind to opiod receptors in PNS and CNS
• opiates - naturally occuring forms
  
  • morphine, codeine
• opioids - semisynthetic derivatives - oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin
  
  • decreased reaction to pain, sense of euphoria
  • OD via respiratory depression
  • heroin - metabolized to morphine
• methadone - long acting opiod with lower risk of OD

Question 40

Hallucinogens

Answer 40

• Lysergic acid diethylamide
• distort reality adn fantasy
• increase HR and BP, sweating, dilate pupils, increase body temp

Question 41

Marijuana

Answer 41

• THC - tetrahydrocannabinol
• acts on cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors
• inhibits GABA activity increase dopamine
• increase HR, decrease BP, increase eat, impair short term memory, dry mouth, fatigue, eye redness

Question 42

Drug addiction

Answer 42

• dopaminergic pathway
• mesolimbic reward pathway - nucleaus accumbens (NAc), central tegmental area (VTA), connected by the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
• activated by substances that produce psychological dependence (love, gambling)

Question 43

selective attention

Answer 43

• focusing on one part of sensorium (sensory environment) while ignoring other stimuli
• cocktail party phenomenon - engaged in conversation and paying attention, yet perceive your name stated across the room
• focus on one stimuli, but process other stimuli in the background

Question 44

divided attention

Answer 44

• multi tasking
• controlled (effortful) processing - require undivided attention
• automatic processing - familiar or routine tasks

Question 45

Components of language

Answer 45

• phonology - actual sound of language
  
  • 40 speech sounds called phonemes
  • categorical perception - ability to distinguish between different pronunciations and different meanings
    
    • example of constancy
• morphology - structure of words
  
  • morphemes - parts of words
• semantics - association of meaning to the world
• syntax - how words form sentences
• pragmatics - dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
  
  • prosody - rhythm, cadence, inflection of voice

Question 46

Language development

Answer 46

• 9mon - 12 mon - babbling
• 12mon - 18 mon - one word per month
  
  • important for parent ot identify meaning. follow gestures, inflection, context
• 18 - 20 mon - explosion of language, combine words. Context less important
• 2 - 3yo - longer sentences, more vocab, more grammar errors
  
  • errors of growth - apply grammar rule incorrectly
• mastered by age 5

Question 47

Nativist Theory of Language

Answer 47

• biological
• Noam Chomsky
• innate capacity for language
• transformational grammar - syntactic transformations, change word order
• language acquisition device (LAD) - theoretical pathway in brain allows infants to process and absorb language rules
• critical period - between 2yo and puberty, exposure to language is required. If no exposure then later attempt will not be successful
• sensitive period - environmental input has mac effect on development
  
  • more reasonable then critical period

Question 48

learning theory of language

Answer 48

• Behaviorist
• BF Skinner
• via operant conditioning
  
  • reinforcement - sounds reinforced and used repeatedly by parents are used by infant
  • cannot explain explosion of vocab at 18-20months

Question 49

social interactionist theory

Answer 49

• interplay between bio and social processes
• driven by childs desire to communicate and behave in social manner
• bio develops and children exposed to language … then interacts with others and it is reinforced

Question 50

Influence of language on cognition

Answer 50

• psycholinguistics - language and thinking relationship
• Whorfian hypothesis (linguistic relativity hyposthesis) - our perception is determined by content of language
• language effects how we think
• more vocabulary and language framework - more processinga and enhanced communication

Question 51

Brain area for language

Answer 51

• dominant hemisphere (typically left)
• Brocas area - inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe - motor function of speech, connected to motor cortex
• Wernickes area - superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe - language comprehension
• 2 areas connected by arcuate fasciculus
• aphasia - deficit of language production
  
  • Broca’s (expressive) aphasia - effect spoken language, word on tip of tongue
  • Wernickes (receptive) aphasia - lose of speech comprehension, speak random words and sounds
  • conduction aphasia - damaged arcuate fasciculus, unable to repeat something that has been said