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PS276 > Ch. 1 - Biological > Flashcards

Ch. 1 - Biological Flashcards

1
Q

What are some words that can be used to describe the physical growth process throughout adolescence?

A

regular/predictable
continuous
decelerating

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2
Q

When does the adolescent growth spurt typically occur? What causes this spurt?

A

11 in girls and 13 in boys

due to spontaneous release of growth and thyroid hormones as well as androgens

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3
Q

What are growth asynchronies?

A

head/hands/feet grow first, then arms/legs, then torso/shoulders

no smooth elongation of the body

rapid increase in limb length leaves teenagers awkward and out of proportion

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4
Q

How does fat and muscle distribution change over adolescence?

A

increase in both fat and muscle

muscle development more rapid for boys than girls

fat increases more rapidly (and in a greater amount for girls)
- much reach a certain amount to initiate menarche and continue menstruation

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5
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary sex characteristic changes?

A

primary = reproductive organs (ex. testes, ovaries)

secondary = physical features

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6
Q

What area of the brain stimulates endocrine glands? What do these endocrine glands do?

A

hypothalamus stimulates endocrine glands

glands produce hormones

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7
Q

What hormones do the female and male sex glands produce?

A

male gonads -> androgens

female ovaries -> estrogen

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8
Q

What are the 6 main signs of pubescence in males?

A
  1. enlargement of testes and scrotum
  2. pubic hair
  3. penis begins lengthen, pubic hair becomes darker and coarser, growth spurt in height
  4. voice change
  5. axillary hair growth (armpits, face)
  6. some experience temporary breast enlargement
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9
Q

What order does facial hair grow in?

A 
corners of upper lip
sideburns
chin
cheeks
neck
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10
Q

What are the 5 main signs of pubescence in females?

A
  1. development of breasts
  2. pubic hair
  3. body growth
  4. menarche
  5. underarm hair
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11
Q

What changes to the skin occur in both boys and girls?

A

rougher skin
sweat-producing glands
oily skin
acne

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12
Q

When has sexual maturity been reached?

A

girls - menarche

boys - first ejaculation

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13
Q

What are some factors that influence the timing and age of menarche?

A

nutrition and general health
- well-nourished = earlier period

geographical location
- warmer = later period

season
- most occur in summer, fewer in spring

family environment
- less cohesive homes = earlier period (relates to activation of hormones)

genetics
- mothers who mature early have daughters who mature early

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14
Q

What are some psychological implications of variations in development?

A

asynchrony often concerns adolescents

  • worry about getting teased/judged
  • feel abnormal

could be treated as older or younger than they actually are - perceptions of maturity are often judged in terms of physical appearance

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15
Q

What are some experiences shared by early maturing boys?

A

fewer psychological problems than late-maturers

more popular, looked up to
- social advantage in the short run

look mature so treated as older

advanced physical abilities -> acceptance/admiration -> positive self concept

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16
Q

What are some experiences shared by late maturing boys?

A

less popular

feel less skilled/competent

but later in life have the advantage

  • become more curious, show social initiative
  • had more time to develop coping skills and prepare for puberty
  • success and satisfaction become more dependent on intellectual skills later in life
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17
Q

What are some experiences shared by early maturing girls?

A

society values slenderness
- causes negative reactions/comparisons to their own larger size/weight

popular with boys/earlier sexual activity

emotional issues

  • lower self-image/self-esteem
  • higher rates of depression/anxiety, eating disorders, and problem behaviour
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18
Q

What is pseudo-independence?

A

early maturing young people seem older and are given adult-like privileges and expectations before they are truly ready

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19
Q

How does maturation timing and supervision relate to alcohol abuse?

A

in early maturing girls, low supervision leads to large increase in alcohol abuse between grades 7-10 compared to high supervision

no difference in late maturing girls

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20
Q

What is body image?

A

concept/perception of what our body looks like

influenced by other people’s real or imagined reactions to use

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21
Q

What is body attitude?

A

how we feel about our body’s form/appearance

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22
Q

What does the prefrontal cortex do?

A

aka control centre or CEO

self-control, judgement, emotional regulation, organization, planning

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23
Q

What brain changes occur during adolescence?

A

growth spurt just before puberty

  • new brain cells and neural connections
  • “cells that fire together, wire together”
  • different regions undergo growth spurts at different times

increased myelinization
- forming insulation around neurons to make information travelling smoother and more efficient

growth followed by pruning

  • extra branches get pruned back to improve organization
  • happens back to front
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24
Q

What are the effects of pruning occurring back to front?

A

prefrontal cortex that underwent growth first is pruned last

frontal lobes actually shrink during adolescence - during this time it is not working as well as it could

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25
Q

What areas of the brain undergo growth spurts first?

A

areas involved in more basic functions mature first

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26
Q

What is the role of the nucleus accumbens?

A

seeks pleasure and reward

developed early on in adolescence (makes sense)

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27
Q

What is the “adolescent dilemma” of brain development?

A

sensation seeking areas turned on while brain areas that mediate these thoughts are not fully developed

reasoning and judgement areas of the frontal lobes continue to develop throughout all of adolescence

back to front development: why adolescents seem to lack good decision making, logical thinking/planning

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28
Q

What do the back areas of the brain control?

A

sensory, movement, coordination

develops first

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29
Q

What do the middle areas of the brain control?

A

aka limbic system

controls emotions

develops second
- becomes fully developed within adolescence, they can and often do respond to emotional content

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30
Q

What do the front areas of the brain control?

A

planning, reasoning, organization

executive functions

among the last to fully mature, not until 25 or later

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31
Q

How do adults and adolescents differ in interpreting emotions?

A

adults use prefrontal cortex and think logically

teens use amygdala - does deal with emotions but lacks some of the logic of the frontal lobe

  • lead with their emotions, heightened emotional sensitivity
  • automatic “hot” or “cool” responses
  • can misread tone, expression
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32
Q

Where is most of the mental energy in decision making located in teenagers?

A

at the back

vs. the front in adults

makes sense as we know synaptic pruning begins at the back

33
Q

When does grey matter volume peak? What is its role?

A

11 for girls, 13 for boys

then gradually declines
- indicates synaptic pruning (positive thing)

thin folding outer layer, where processes of thought/memory are

34
Q

How can adolescence provide the chance to “create the brain you want”?

A

what you use gets stronger

consolidate circuits that are used, eliminate those that are not

current actions impact future brain

35
Q

What is delayed phase preference?

A

adolescents prefer delayed phase of sleeping - later sleep and wake times than in childhood

melatonin increase times get later during puberty - 2 hours later by the end

but often not possible (ex. school start times)

36
Q

How do melatonin and kisspeptin interact?

A

kisspeptin triggers puberty

melatonin

  • triggered by dark, makes you sleepy
  • levels fluctuate throughout the day
  • suppresses kisspeptin, contributes to puberty delay
37
Q

How does increased vs. decreased light exposure affect puberty?

A

increase in light -> decrease melatonin -> decrease in kisspeptin suppression -> earlier puberty

decrease in light -> increase melatonin -> increase in kisspeptin suppression -> later puberty

38
Q

What other factors suppress melatonin? What are the effects of suppressed melatonin?

A

lights
electronics

make us less sleep and make it easier to stay up later

39
Q

What is sleep debt?

A

the difference between the amount of sleep your body needs and the amount you actually get

if you are short on sleep, your total sleep deficit builds, resulting in long-term sleep debt
-long-term sleep debt can’t be fully recovered

40
Q

What is sleep deprivation?

A

accumulation of sleep debt

adolescents often chronically sleep deprived, commonly viewed as an epidemic

41
Q

What are some impacts of sleep deprivation?

A 
daytime sleepiness
inability to concentrate
poor grades/underachievement
reduced cognitive function and learning capacity
poor impulse control
weight gain
drowsy driving incidents
exacerbate ADHD/ASD symptoms
affect mood/emotional regulation
shapes brain - decrease in grey matter
42
Q

How does sleep deprivation lead to reduced cognitive function and learning capacity?

A

REM sleep consolidates learning and memories

opportunity is reduced when you don’t get enough sleep

43
Q

How does sleep deprivation lead to weight gain?

A

slower metabolism

hormonal tendency to eat more

44
Q

How can drowsy driving be especially dangerous in adolescence?

A

can be amplified by lack of driving experience and distracted driving

similar to effects of alcohol consumption

45
Q

How may COVID be affecting adolescent sleep?

A

decreased natural light
decreased physical activity
increased screen time

light based-cues we use for wakefulness and sleep may be reduced

46
Q

What are the 3 chief physical manifestations of puberty?

A

rapid growth acceleration -> increased height and weight

development of primary sex characteristics (sex glands)
- results in hormonal changes

development of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, genitals body hair)

47
Q

What are hormones?

A

specialized substances that are secreted by an endocrine gland and enter the bloodstream to travel throughout the body

many hormones at work during puberty carry instructions by activating GnRH neurons

48
Q

What is the role of the endocrine system?

A

produces, circulates, and regulates levels of hormones

49
Q

What are glands?

A

organs that stimulate particular parts of the body to respond in specific ways

50
Q

What is the Hormonal Feedback Loop?

A

receives instructions to increase or decrease circulating levels of particular hormones from CNS
- mainly from firing of GnRH neurons

attempts to maintain set point

created by HPG axis

51
Q

What is a set point?

A

physiological level of a hormone that the body attempts to maintain

monitored by hypothalamus

52
Q

What is the HPG-axis?

A

hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis

hypothalamus monitors levels and signals/inhibits pituitary gland

pituitary gland signals the gonads to release more hormones

neurophysiological pathway that creates feedback loop

53
Q

What is adrenarche?

A

maturation of the adrenal glands

  • brain system that controls how we responds to stress
  • why adolescence is a period of vulnerability for many serious mental disorders
  • excessive release of cortisol (stress hormone) which can kill brain cells and is also associated with physical health problems

stimulates feelings of sexual attraction and development of body odour

54
Q

What triggers puberty?

A

HPG axis is reawakened to signal body that it is time for puberty
- partially due to “puberty alarm” set by genetics, some due to signals that tell the brain it is time to prepare for child-bearing

stimulated by increase in kisspeptin

  • leptin stimulates, melatonin suppresses
  • more fat cells and more light exposure = earlier puberty
55
Q

Why does fat levels and light exposure affect puberty timing?

A

evolutionary history

once someone has developed enough fat and senses the season is right for gathering food, start preparing for child-birth

our genes don’t know we no longer live in resource-scarce world

56
Q

Not all behaviour changes that appear at adolescence result from hormone changes at this time. Why is this?

A

presence of certain hormones early in life can result in behaviour changes that don’t emerge until adolescence

certain changes likely result from prenatal and pubertal hormones

57
Q

What is epiphysis?

A

closing of the ends of long bones, terminating growth in height at the end of puberty

58
Q

What is peak heigh velocity?

A

time when adolescent is growing most rapidly

4 inches per year for boys, 3.5 for girls - same rate as a toddler

59
Q

What happens first: fertility, or adult-like appearance?

A

boys fertile before adult-like appearance

opposite for girls

60
Q

When is the range of ages in which puberty can begin? What is the range of how long it may take to complete?

A

onset can occur as early as 5 in girls or 6 in boys and begin as late as 13

complete maturation can be as short as half a year or as long as 6 years for girls
- 2-5 years for boys

61
Q

What determines timing and tempo of puberty?

A

largely inherited

environment plays a role in where the individual falls within the range set by genetics

62
Q

What are the 2 biggest environmental influences on puberty timing/tempo?

A

nutrition and health

earlier among those who are better nourished

chronic illness, excessive exercise push puberty later

63
Q

What are pheromones? What role do they play?

A

chemicals secreted by animals that stimulate certain behaviours in other members of the species

exposure to unrelated members of the other species may accelerate puberty

ex. menstrual period synchronization in female roommates

64
Q

What is the secular trend?

A

tendency over the past 2 centuries for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier

due to improvements in health and nutrition

also due to increase in leptin due to increased obesity

also evidence that it takes longer to complete

65
Q

What behavioural trend has resulted from age of puberty dropping?

A

amount of time between arousal of sensation seeking and maturation of self-control has grown

creating larger window of vulnerability to risky behaviour
- adolescent mortality has risen

66
Q

What is the maturational deviance hypothesis?

A

those who stand far apart from their peers are more likely to experience psychological distress than those who blend in more easily

ex. early maturing girls more likely to be sexually harassed, early maturing teens more likely to participate in deviant activities

67
Q

What is the developmental readiness hypothesis?

A

younger adolescents are less ready to cope with the challenge of puberty than the older ones

68
Q

What is white matter?

A

cells other than neurons that also play a role in transmitting electrical impulses among brain circuits

produce myelin for myelination

69
Q

What cells go through synaptic pruning?

A

grey matter

70
Q

Why is adolescence called “the age of opportunity”?

A

second period of heightened brain plasticity

71
Q

What is plasticity?

A

capacity of the brain to change in response to experience

sculpted by both passive exposure and active experience, allows us to acquire new information and abilities

72
Q

What is the difference between developmental plasticity and adult plasticity?

A

developmental = extensive remodelling of brain circuitry in response to experiences while the brain is still maturing

adult = relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences after the brain has matured

73
Q

How can the malleability of the brain also be a risk?

A

brain more vulnerable to damage from physical or psychological harms

74
Q

What are the 2 most important brain function changes involving the prefrontal cortex?

A

response inhibition

functional connectivity

75
Q

What is functional connectivity?

A

more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between brain areas

76
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

middle section of the brain

involved in processing emotions, social information, and rewards/punishment

77
Q

What results from better connection between prefrontal cortex and limbic system?

A

improvements in ability to regulate emotions and coordinate thoughts and feelings

78
Q

What is the role of dopamine and serotonin?

A

dopamine - experiencing reward

serotonin - experiencing different moods

changes in the way the brain is affected by these neurotransmitters lead to adolescents being more emotional, responsive to stress, sensitive to rewards, more likely to engage in sensation seeking
- also more vulnerable to substance abuse and mental health issues

PS276 (12 decks)

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