CH. 1 Flashcards
What is “psychology”?
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
What do psychologists do?
psychologists try to describe, predict, and explain human behavior and mental processes using scientific methods to find answers
What are examples of behaviors or mental processes that psychologists study?
thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and biological activities that maintain bodily functioning
What is “behavioral neuroscience”?
focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body determine behavior
What are people?
biological organisms
What is “experimental psychology”?
studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
What is “cognitive psychology”?
a sub-specialty of experimental psychology focusing on higher mental processes, such as thinking, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, judging, decision-making, and language
What is “developmental psychology”?
studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death
What is “personality psychology”?
focuses on consistency in people’s behavior across their lives as well as traits that differentiate one person from another
What is “health psychology”?
explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease
What is “clinical psychology”?
deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders
What is “counseling psychology”?
focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems
What is “social psychology”?
studies how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others
What is “cross-cultural psychology”?
investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups
What is “evolutionary psychology”?
considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
What does the field of evolutionary psychology stem from?
Darwin’s “On the Origin of Species”
What is “behavioral genetics”?
seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits
What is “clinical neuropsychology”?
unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology and focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors
What are examples of settings that employ psychologists? (6)
- institutions of higher learning
- private practice treating clients
- hospitals, clinics, mental health centers
- government human-services organizations
- businesses, schools, prisons, the military
- Department of Homeland Security
Where do most psychologists work?
academic settings
What percent of active psychologists are members of racial minority groups?
14%
What are the consequences of underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities among psychologists?
- the field is diminished by a lack of diverse perspectives and talents
- underrepresentation deters minorities from entering the field
- because people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own ethnic group, minorities are underserved
What is a PhD (doctor of philosophy)?
a research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation
Who obtains a PsyD (doctor of psychology)?
psychologists who want to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders
What is a “psychiatrist”?
a doctor who has a medical degree to specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
What are the most common areas of employment for psychology majors in the social services? (3)
- administration
- counseling
- providing direct care
What are examples of other fields psychology majors often enter? (3)
- education
- business
- government (federal, state, or local)
What is “structuralism”?
a focus on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities
What is “introspection”?
a procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus
In what ways were structuralism and the procedure of introspection challenged overtime?
- introspection was not a truly scientific technique, because there were few ways an outsider could confirm its accuracy
- people had difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences, such as emotional responses
What is “functionalism”?
an approach that concentrates on what the mind does and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments
What is “Gestalt psychology”?
uses a series of principles to describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes
What do Gestalt psychologists propose?
“the whole is different than the sum of its parts,” meaning our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our perceptions
What are the major perspectives of psychology? (5)
- neuroscience
- cognitive
- behavioral
- humanistic
- psychodynamic
What is the neuroscience perspective?
the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions
What is the psychodynamic perspective?
the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness/control
What is the behavioral perspective?
the approach that suggests the focus should be on external behavior that can be objectively measured and observed
What is the cognitive perspective?
the approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world
From the cognitive perspective, what is “thinking”?
information processing
What is the humanistic perspective?
suggests individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior (free wil)
What are psychology’s key issues and controversies? (5)
- Issue 1: nature (heredity) vs. nurture (environment)
- Issue 2: conscious vs. unconscious causes of behavior
- Issue 3: observable behavior vs. internal mental processes
- Issue 4: free will vs. determinism
- Issue 5: individual differences vs. universal principles
What kinds of questions does issue 1: nature (heredity) vs. nurture (environment) pose? (3)
- How much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically determined nature?
- How much is due to nurture–the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is raised?
- What is the interplay between heredity and environment?
What kinds of questions does issue 2: conscious vs. unconscious causes of behavior pose? (2)
- How much of behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware?
- How much is due to unconscious activity?
What question does issue 3: observable behavior vs. internal mental processes pose?
Should we focus solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should we consider unseen thinking processes?
What question does issue 4: free will versus determinism pose?
How much of our behavior is a matter of free will, and how much is subject to determinism?
What is free will?
the idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual
What is determinism?
the idea that people’s behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control
What kinds of questions does issue 5: individual differences vs. universal principles pose?
- How much of behavior is due to a person’s unique and special qualities?
- How much stems from the culture and society?
- Universal principles are those that underlie the behavior of all humans
In the future of psychology, which trends seem likely? (6)
- psychology will become increasingly specialized
- neuroscientific approaches will likely influence other branches of psychology
- psychology’s influence on issues of public interest will grow
- psychologists must follow increasingly strict ethical and moral guidelines
- the public’s view of psychology will become more informed
- the issue of diversity will become more important
What is the scientific method?
an approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest
What are the 4 steps of the scientific method?
- identify questions of interest
- formulate an expression
- carry out research
- communicate findings
What are theories?
broad explanations and predictions concerning observations of interest
What is the theory of diffusion of responsibility?
the greater number of bystanders, the more the responsibility to help is perceived as shared, and the smaller the share of responsibility each person feels
What do theories provide?
a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of unorganized facts/principles
What is a hypothesis?
a prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested
What is the “operational definition”?
the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed
Why do psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses? (4)
- to make sense of unorganized, separate observations and bits of data
- to place observations and data within a coherent framework
- to move beyond known facts and make deductions about unexplained phenomena
- to develop ideas for future investigation
What is “research”?
systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge and is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology
What are examples of different kinds of research?
- archival
- naturalistic observation
- survey research
- case study
- correlational
- experimental
What is archival research?
existing data is examined to test a hypothesis
What are examples of existing data in archival research? (4)
- census documents
- college records
- online databases
- newspaper clippings
What is an advantage of archival research?
inexpensive
What is a disadvantage of archival research?
the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully (the information could be incomplete, or it could have been collected haphazardly)
What is naturalistic observation?
an investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation
What is an advantage of naturalistic observation?
obtains a sample of what people do in their natural habitat
What is a disadvantage of naturalistic observation?
the inability to control any factors of interest
What is survey research?
people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes
What is an advantage of survey research?
if the sample is representative, makes it possible to infer how a larger group would respond
What are the disadvantages of survey research? (2)
- results will be largely inconsequential if the sample is not representative
- survey respondents may not be truthful about their attitudes or may be unaware of their true attitudes
What is a case study?
an in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual of a small group of people
What is psychological testing?
a carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individual/group
What is an advantage of case study research?
insights can improve our understanding of people in general
What is a disadvantage of case study research?
small samples or unique individuals make it impossible to make valid generalizations about a larger population
What are “variables”?
behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way
What is correlational research?
the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or correlated
What is a disadvantage of correlational research?
correlational research cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
What is correlation, or correlation coefficient?
the strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables, which can range from +1.0 to -1.0
What is “positive correlation”?
as the value of one variable increases, so will the value of the other variable (the stronger the association, the closer the number will be to +1.0)
What is “negative correlation”?
as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable will decrease (the stronger the association, the closer the number will be to -1.0)
What would a value closer to 0 indicate?
a lack of a relationship
What is an “experiment”?
the investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects on the second variable
What is experimental manipulation?
the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation
What is an advantage of experimental research?
the only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships
What is a disadvantage of experimental research?
to be valid, requires careful controls
What is a “treatment”?
the manipulation implemented by the experimenter
What is the “experimental group”?
any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment
What is the “control group”?
a group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment
What possibility do researchers rule out by employing both experimental and control groups?
the possibility that something other than the experimental manipulation produced the results
What is the independent variable?
the variable that is manipulated by an experimenter
What is the dependent variable?
the variable that is measured in an experiment (expected to change)
What is “random assignment to condition”?
a procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance alone
What is a significant outcome?
indicates that the findings of a research study are statistically meaningful
What is replicated research?
the repetition of research, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings
What is “meta-analysis”?
a procedure that permits psychologists to combine the results of many separate studies into one overall conclusion
What are examples of guidelines that protect participants in research? (5)
- protection of participants from physical and mental harm
- the right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior
- the assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary
- the necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures before their participation in the experiment
- all experiments must be reviewed by an independent panel before being conducted
What is informed consent?
a document signed by participants affirming that they have been told about the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve
What is “debriefing”?
after a participation in a study, participants receive an explanation of the study and the procedures that were involved
When can informed consent and debriefing be eliminated?
when risks are minimal, as in a purely observational study in a public place
What does animal research allow for? (3)
- posing different questions in different ways
- greater experimental control
- procedures that might ethically not be possible with people
When are procedures that subject animals to distress permitted? (2)
- when an alternative procedure is unavailable
- when the research is justified by its prospective value
What is experimental bias?
factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment
What are examples of experimental bias? (2)
- an experimenter’s expectations can produce the expected result when the researcher unintentionally transmits cues to participants
- participant expectations about appropriate behavior can also affect results
What is a “placebo”?
a false treatment, such as a pill, drug, or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient
What is a double-blind procedure?
both the experimenter and the participant are “blind” to the nature of the substance being administered
