CH. 5 Flashcards
What is “learning”?
a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
What are the 2 main reasons for changes in behavior?
- nature
- nurture
What type of learning do infants exhibit?
habituation
What is “habituation”?
the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
What is “classical conditioning”?
a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
Ivan Pavlov’s classic experiment on basic learning processes showed that dogs who salivated in response to food would begin to salivate just at the approach of the experimenter who normally brought the food. What were the dogs responding as a result of?
the dogs were responding as a result of learning
What is a “neutral stimulus”?
a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest
What is an “unconditioned stimulus (UCS)”?
naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned
What is an “unconditioned response (UCR)”?
is natural and needs no training
What is a “conditioned stimulus (CS)”?
a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
What kind of response does a conditioned stimulus bring about?
brings about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
What is a “conditioned response (CR)”?
a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
How are an unconditioned response (UCR) and a conditioned response (CR) different?
the unconditioned response occurs naturally
What can classical conditioning lead to the development of? (3)
- phobias = intense, irrational fears
- post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
- positive experiences (like a song bringing back memories)
What is “extinction”?
a basic learning phenomenon that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears
What is “spontaneous recovery”?
the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
What is “stimulus generalization”?
a process in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
What is “stimulus discrimination”?
the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another
What leads to a greater likelihood of stimulus generalization?
the greater the similarity between two stimuli
What does stimulus discrimination provide?
provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli
In stimulus discrimination, how are the stimuli distinctly different from one another?
one evokes a conditioned response and the other does not
What did John Garcia, a learning psychologist, find that some organisms were biologically prepared to do?
some organisms were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled/tasted like something that made them sick (taste aversion)
What is “operant conditioning”?
learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened/weakened, depending on the response’s favorable/unfavorable consequences
How are operant conditioning and classical conditioning different?
unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses that an organism performs deliberately
What is Thorndike’s “law of effect”?
responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
According to Thorndike, over time and through experience, an organism makes a direct connection between what and what without any awareness that the connection exists?
the stimulus and response
What is the “Skinner box” (developed by B.F. Skinner)?
a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning with laboratory animals
If a hungry rat is taught to press a lever in the Skinner box, what will happen? (3)
- at first, it accidentally presses the lever as it explores its environment–and it receives a food pellet
- it will not learn the connection the first time
- sooner/later it presses the lever again, and in time the frequency of the pressing response increases
What is “reinforcement”?
the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
What is a “reinforcer”?
any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
What is a “primary reinforcer”?
a stimulus that satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of previous experience
What is an example of a primary reinforcer?
food for a hungry person
What is a “secondary reinforcer”?
a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer
What is an example of a secondary reinforcer?
money for food for a hungry person
What is a “positive reinforcer”?
a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
What is a “negative reinforcer”?
an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated
What is “punishment”?
a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again
What are the two types of punishment and how are they different?
- positive = adds something
- negative = removes something
How does positive punishment work?
weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus
What is an example of positive punishment?
spanking
How does negative punishment work?
weakens a response through the removal of something unpleasant
What is an example of negative punishment?
no more video games
What are the pros of punishment? (2)
- appropriate for dangerous behaviors
- temporary suppression provides an opportunity to reinforce more desirable behaviors
What are the cons of punishment? (4)
- frequently ineffective
- punished behavior may be replaced by even less desirable behavior
- physical punishment can cause harm (fear, lowered self-esteem, etc.)
- does not relay information about alternative, more desired behavior
What is a schedule of reinforcement?
the pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
reinforcing of behavior every time it occurs
What is a partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule?
reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time
Which reinforcement schedule maintains performance longer before extinction occurs?
partial reinforcement schedule
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable
What is the crucial factor in both the fixed-ratio schedule and the variable-ratio schedule?
the number of responses
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed
What is a variable-interval schedule?
the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed
What is the crucial factor in both the fixed-interval schedule and variable-interval schedule?
the amount of time that has elapsed since the reward
What is stimulus control training?
behavior reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence
What does a discriminative stimulus do?
signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response
What is “shaping”?
the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
What are the steps to shaping? (3)
- start by reinforcing any behavior similar to the behavior you want the person to learn
- later, you reinforce only responses that are closer to the behavior you ultimately want to teach
- finally, you reinforce only the desired response
What are 3 examples of biological constraints that are consistent with evolutionary explanations of behavior?
- adaptive benefits promote survival
- associations that animals learn most readily involve stimuli that are most relevant in the specific environment in which they live
- we may be genetically predisposed to be fearful of certain stimuli
What is “behavior modification”?
a technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
What are the steps of behavior modification?
- identify goals and target behaviors
- design a data-recording system and record preliminary data
- select a behavior-change strategy
- implement the program
- keep careful records after the program is implemented
- evaluate and alter the ongoing program
What is the “cognitive learning theory”?
an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
What does the cognitive learning theory suggest?
it is not enough to say that people respond because there is an assumed link between a stimulus and a response, instead, people develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response
What is “latent learning”?
learning in which a new behavior is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it (occurs without reinforcement)
What is a “cognitive map”?
a mental representation of spatial locations and directions
What is observational learning?
learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model
What is the genetic basis of operational learning?
mirror neurons fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior
What are examples of aspects of media violence that may contribute to real-life aggressive behavior?
- lowering inhibitions against behaving aggressively
- predisposing us to view even nonaggressive acts by others as aggressive
- desensitization
