CH. 9 Flashcards
nature-nurture issue
the issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior
developmental psychology
the branch of psychology that studies patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life
Who/what developmental psychology influenced by?
behavioral geneticists and the theories of evolutionary psychologists
identical twins
twins who are genetically identical
What is one approach that developmental psychologists use?
observe animals with identical genetic backgrounds in varied environments
cross-sectional research
a research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time to assess difference among groups of people
longitudinal research
a research method that investigates behavior as participants age to assess changes in behavior over time
chromosomes
rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information
genes
parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted
What is an XX combination?
female
What is an XY combination?
male
What do genes do?
- control the development of systems of the human species–heart, circulatory system, brain, lungs, and so forth
- shape the characteristics that make each human unique
- determines the child’s sex by a particular combination
What was the 2001 Human Genome Project able to do?
map the specific location and sequence of every human gene
What effect did the Human Genome Project have on health care?
- scientists could now identify the particular genes responsible for genetically caused disorders
- risk factors in children can be identified
- new treatments for physical and psychological disorders have been made possible
zygote
a new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm
germinal period
the first two weeks after the union of an egg and sperm (zygote)
embryonic period
week 2 through week 8 after the union of an egg and sperm (zygote)
embryo
a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs that are clearly recognizable, despite being at a primitive stage of development
fetal period
week 8 after the union of an egg and sperm until birth
fetus
a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth
age of viability
the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely–at about prenatal age 22 weeks
sensitive period
time when organisms are susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli
What does prenatal development involve?
passing through several sensitive periods
At then end of the normal 38 weeks of pregnancy, how much does the fetus weigh?
7 pounds
At the end of the normal 38 weeks of pregnancy, how long is the fetus?
20 inches long
When are preterm infants born?
before week 38
Why are preterm infants at a higher risk for illness, future problems, and death?
they are unable to develop fully in utero
In what % of births do children have serious defects?
2% to 5%
What is a major cause of serious defects in children?
faulty genes or chromosomes
phenylketonuria (PKU)
cannot produce an enzyme required for normal development
sickle-cell anemia
abnormally shaped red blood cells; may be passed on by about 10% of the African American population
Tay-Sachs disease
usually die by age 3 or 4 because of the body’s inability to break down fat; most often found in Jews of Eastern European ancestry
down syndrome
a cause of intellectual disability in which the zygote receives an extra chromosome; increased risk with mothers who are over 35
teratogens
environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factors that produce a birth defect
What are 4 major prenatal environmental influences?
- mother’s nutrition
- mother’s illness
- mother’s emotional state
- mother’s use of drugs, alcohol, and/or nicotine
neonate
a newborn child
vernix
a white, greasy covering for protection before birth
lanugo
a soft fuzz over the entire body for protection
What are 4 factors in the neonate’s strange appearance?
- squeezing of the incompletely formed bones during the trip through the mother’s birth canal
- vernix
- lanugo
- puffy eyelids due to an accumulation of fluids in an upside-down position
reflexes
unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
rooting reflex
turning of the head toward things that touch their cheeks
sucking reflex
prompts infants to suck at things that touch their lips
gag reflex
clearing of the throat
startle reflex
a series of movements in response to a sudden noise
babinski reflex
fanning out of the toes when the foot is stroked
What can researchers tell by studying habituation?
when a child who is too young to speak can detect and discriminate a stimulus
habituation
the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
In the first year of life, what will children do?
- gain triple their weight
- increase in height by half
From age 3 to the beginning of adolescence, what is the average growth gain?
about 5 pounds and 3 inches a year
attachment
the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
imprinting
behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object observed
What did Konrad Lorenz study attachment with?
newborn goslings
What did Harry Harlow study attachment with?
infant monkeys
Ainsworth strange situation
a sequence of events involving a child and (typically) his or her mother
securely attached children
children employ the mother as a home base from which they explore; when she leaves, they are distressed; when she returns they go to her
By what age do children prefer to play with peers, or friends?
2 years old
parallel play
children play physically near each other, but they don’t try to influence each other’s behavior
How can high-quality care centers positively impact the child?
- children in child care are more considerate and sociable than other children, and they interact more positively with teachers
- they may also regulate their behavior more effectively
- for many from poor/disadvantages homes, child care may be more intellectually stimulating than the home environment
What 4 main parenting styles did Diana Baumrind’s classic research identify?
- authoritarian parents
- permissive parents
- authoritative parents
- uninvolved parents
authoritarian parents
those who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children
authoritative parents
those who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them
permissive parents
those who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them
uninvolved parents
those who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached
temperament
a basic, inborn characteristic way or responding and behavioral style
resilience
the ability to overcome circumstances that place children at high risk for psychological or even physical harm
What theory did psychoanalyst Erik Erikson develop?
a series of eight stages of psychosocial development
psychosocial development
the development of individuals’ interactions and understanding of each other and their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society
trust-versus-mistrust stage
infants between brith to age 1 1/2 develop feelings of trust or lack of trust
autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
toddlers aged 1 1/2 to 3 develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged; or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected
initiative-versus-guilt stage
children aged 3 to 6 experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action
industry-versus-inferiority stage
children aged 6 to 12 may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less social
cognitive development
the process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience
What theory did Jean Piaget suggest?
children proceed through a series of 4 stages in a fixed order
sensorimotor stage
the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols
object permanence
an awareness that objects–and people–continue to exist even if they are out of sight
preoperational stage
the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development
egocentric thought
a way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective
principle of conservation
the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects
concrete operational stage
the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism largely bound to the concrete physical reality of the world
formal operational stage
the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought
What significant changes occur in children’s information-proceeding capabilities?
- increases in the speed of processing
- dramatic improvements to memory
- advances in metacognition
metacognition
an awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes
According to developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky, when does cognitive development occur?
it occurs as a consequence of social interactions
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
the gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves
scaffolding
support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth
adolescence
the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood
puberty
the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys (menstruation and spermarche)
What physical changes do children undergo at the start of adolescence?
- growth spurt, around age 10 for girls and 12 for boys
- development of breasts in girls, deepening voices in boys, body hair, and intense sexual feelings
What is the 3 level sequence in which psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg thought that changes in moral reasoning could be understood?
- preconventional morality
- conventional morality
- postconventional morality
What is one difficulty with Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory?
it pertains to moral judgments, not moral behavior
preconventional morality
the main considerations are the avoidance of punishment and the desire for rewards
conventional morality
membership in society becomes important; people behave in ways that will win the approval of others
postconventional morality
people accept that there are certain broad principles of morality that should govern our actions; and these principles are more critical than the particular laws in a society
What did psychologist Carol Gilligan argue?
men and women view moral behavior differently because of their different socialization
How do men view moral behavior?
men view it primarily in terms of broad principles, such as justice and fairness
How do women view moral behavior?
women see it in terms of responsibility toward others and willingness to make sacrifices–a morality of caring
In teenage years, what 3 certain questions assume special significance for adolescents?
- “Who am I?”
- “How do I fit into the world?”
- “What is life all about?”
identity
the distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of
identity-versus-role-confusion stage
according to Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one’s unique qualities
intimacy-versus-isolation stage
a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships
generativity-versus-stagnation stage
a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society
ego-integrity-versus-despair stage
a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life’s accomplishments and failures
What are Erikson’s 8 stages?
- trust-versus mistrust
- autonomy-verus-shame-and-doubt
- initiative-versus-guilt
- industry-versus-inferiority
- identity-versus-role-confusion
- intimacy-versus-isolation
- generativity-versus-stagnation
- ego-integrity-versus-despair
adolescent egocentrism
the state of self-absorption in which a teenager views the world from his or her own point of view
personal fables
the belief that one’s experiences are unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else
For every one who takes his or her own life, how many may attempt suicide?
200
What are warning signs of suicide?
- school problems
- frequent incidents of self-destructive behavior
- loss of appetite or excessive eating
- withdrawal from friends and peers
- sleeping problems
- signs of depression, tearfulness, or over indications of psychological difficulties
- preoccupation with death
- putting affairs in order
- explicit announcement of suicidal thoughts
emerging adulthood
the period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-twenties
menopause
the period when women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile, usually in the late 40s or early 50s
What may menopause symptoms be treated with?
hormone therapy (HT)
midlife transition
the period when people may begin to question their lives
How many first marriages end in divorce?
39%
“second shift”
additional work performed by women with a career and home responsibilities
genetic preprogramming theories of aging
our DNA genetic code includes a built-in time limit to the reproduction of human cells and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time
wear-and-tear theories of aging
the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently
What kind of skills usually show declines in late adulthood?
skills relating to fluid intelligence (information processing)
What kind of skills usually remain steady and in some cases improve in late adulthood?
skills relating to crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge)
alzheimer’s disease
a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
disengagement theory of aging
successful aging is characterized by gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels
activity theory of aging
successful aging is characterized by maintaining the interests and activities of earlier stages of life
life review
the process by which people examine and evaluate their lives
