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CSC1005 - Integrated Human Physiology > Central Nervous System > Flashcards

Central Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

What is the anatomical planes of the brain?

A

The brain can be viewed in three ways

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2
Q

What are the three ways the brain can be viewed?

A

Coronal/Frontal Plane
(Para)sagittal/(para)median Plane
Transverse, horizontal or axial plane

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3
Q

How is the nervous system organised on an anatomical level?

A
  • Central Nervous System

- Peripheral Nervous System

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4
Q

What does the central nervous system contain?

A

Brain and Spinal cord

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5
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system?

A

Cranial nerves and Spinal nervers

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6
Q

What does the functional level of the nervous system contain?

A
  • Somatic Nervous System

- Autonomic Nervous System

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7
Q

What does the somatic nervous system control?

A

Control of movement

External environment

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8
Q

What doe the automatic nervous system control?

A

Internal environment

Homeostasis

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9
Q

What are the subunits of the automatic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Enteric

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10
Q

What are the two types of cells?

A
  • Neurons

- Glia

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11
Q

What is the structure of a neurone?

A

Dendrites
Soma (Cell body)
Axons

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12
Q

What are the synapse involved in neurones?

A

Transmission of information
Involves neurotransmitter
Pre synaptic neurone to post synaptic neurone

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13
Q

What is the function neurone?

A

Afferent neuron
Interneurons
Efferent Neurons

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14
Q

What is an afferent neurone?

A

Receive information from sensory organs and then transmit to CNS

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15
Q

What is the interneurone?

A

Acts as an intermediary in passing signals between two other neurones

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16
Q

What is an efferent neurone?

A

Send impulses from the central nervous system to your limbs and organs

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17
Q

What is the characteristics of a glia?

A
  • Outnumber neurones by 2-10 times

- Haves processes, but no dendrites or axons

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18
Q

What is the function of a glia?

A
  • Not directly involved in information processing

- Structural matriculates, homeostasis, protection

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19
Q

What are the different types of glia?

A
  • Microglia
  • Macroglia
  • Ependyman cells
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20
Q

What does the macroglia include?

A
  • Astrocytes

- Oligodendrocytes

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21
Q

What are different parts of a spinal cord?

A
  • Spinal nervers
  • Grey matter
  • White matter
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22
Q

What is the spinal nerve made out of?

A
  • Dorsal root

- Ventral root

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23
Q

What does the dorsal root contain?

A
  • Afferent neurons

- Somas in dorsal root ganglion

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24
Q

What does the ventral root contain?

A
  • Motor neurons

- Somas within spinal coord

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25
Q

What does the grey matter include?

A
  • Dorsal horns

- Ventral horns

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26
Q

What is the dorsal horns?

A
  • Afferent neurones from sensory receptors

- Origin of ascending pathways to the brain

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27
Q

What is the ventral horns?

A
  • Motor neurones

- Innervate skeletal muscle

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28
Q

What does the white matter include?

A
  • Ascending tract

- Descending tract

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29
Q

Where does the information involved in the ascending tract of white matter go?

A

The brain

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30
Q

What does the ascending tract of the white matter include?

A
  • Dorsal columns
  • Spinothalamic
  • Spinocerebellar
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31
Q

What is the dorsal columns?

A

Fine touch and proprioception

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32
Q

What is the spinothalamic?

A

Pain, coarse touch, temperature and pressure

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33
Q

What is the spinocerebellar?

A

Receptors in joints and muscles

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34
Q

What does the descending tract of the white matter include?

A

Lateral corticospinal tract?

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35
Q

What is the lateral corticospinal tract?

A

Voluntary movement

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36
Q

In the spinal nerve is the sensory info (involved with the dorsal root) joined to the motor info (involved with the ventral root)?

A

No they are separated

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37
Q

What is more excitable a neurone or glia?

A

Neurone

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38
Q

When is a microglia cell activated?

A

When a pathogen is present

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39
Q

What is the ependymal cell?

A

Epthial cells lining the ventricle

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40
Q

When are astrocytes (involved with the macroglia cell) activated?

A

In homeostasis and forms blood brain barrier (selectively allows chemicals into the brain)

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41
Q

What are the components of the brainstem?

A
  • Medulla oblongata
  • Pons
  • Midbrain
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42
Q

What is the does the brainstem connect?

A

The spinal cord to the brain

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43
Q

What is the vital function of the brainstem?

A

Control breathing and level of arousal

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44
Q

What does the ascending fibre of the brainstem function?

A

Sensory

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45
Q

What does the descending fibre of the brainstem function?

A

Motor

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46
Q

What is the cerebellum structure?

A
  • Cerebellar cortex
  • White matter
  • Peduncles
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47
Q

What are the components of the peduncles?

A
  • Superior (Midbrain)
  • Middle (Pons)
  • Inferior (Medulla)
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48
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A
  • Movement coordination
  • Muscle tone
  • Equilibrium
  • Posture
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49
Q

What are the two components that make up the diencephalon?

A
  • Hypothalamus

- Thalamus

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50
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

A
  • Autonomic (homeostasis)
  • Limbic (emotions)
  • Neuroendocrine (pituitary gland)
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51
Q

What does the hypothalamus contain?

A

Several nuclei

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52
Q

What does the thalamus contain?

A

Several nuclei

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53
Q

What is the thalamus a gateway to?

A

The cortex

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54
Q

What part of the diencephalon get input from most areas of the CNS?

A

Thalamus

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55
Q

What is the function of the thalamus?

A
  • Sensory
  • Motor
  • Cognitive
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56
Q

What does the cerebral hemisphere made out of?

A
  • Grey matter

- Whute matter

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57
Q

What is the largest part of the brain?

A

Cerebral hemisphere

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58
Q

What makes up the grey matter in the cerebral hemisphere?

A
  • Cerebral cortex

- Basal ganglia

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59
Q

What makes up the white matter in the cerebral hemisphere?

A
  • Corpus callous
  • Corona radiata
  • Internal capsule
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60
Q

What is the basal ganglia made up of in the cerebral hemisphere?

A
  • Caudate
  • Putamen
  • Globus pallidus
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61
Q

What does the basal ganglia do?

A

Control of movement, posture and muscle tone

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62
Q

Finish the sentence:

The cerebral cortex is highly…

A

convoluted

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63
Q

What are the different types of convolutes that make up the cerebral cortex?

A
  • Gyrus
  • Sulcus
  • Fissure
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64
Q

Describe the gyrus in the cerebral cortex:

A

Ridge of cortex

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65
Q

Describe the sulcus. in the cerebral cortex:

A

Shallow groove

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66
Q

Describe the fissure in the cerebral cortex:

A

Deep sulcus

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67
Q

What are the different lops in the cerebral hemisphere?

A
  • Frontal
  • Parietal
  • Temporal
  • Occipital
  • Insula
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68
Q

What are each lobe divided into?

A

Different functional areas

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69
Q

What are the primary areas of the cerebral hemisphere?

A
  • Motor cortex
  • Somatosesonsory cortex
  • Auditory cortex
  • Visual cortex
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70
Q

What does the motor cortex control?

A

Voluntary movement

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71
Q

What does the somatosensory cortex control?

A

Somatosensation

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72
Q

What does the auditory cortex control?

A

Hearing

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73
Q

What does the visual cortex control?

A

Seeing

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74
Q

What are the secondary areas of the cerebral hemisphere?

A
  • Broca’s area

- Wernicke’s area

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75
Q

What is the Broca’s area?

A

Language expression

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76
Q

What is the Wernicke’s area?

A

Language comprehension

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77
Q

What are the higher order areas of the cerebral hemispheres?

A
  • Multimodel Integration
  • Attention
  • Recognition
  • Decision making
  • Personality
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78
Q

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

A

Judgement, motor planning and personality

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79
Q

What is the function of the visual association?

A

Object recognition

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80
Q

What is the function of the posterior parietal?

A

Spatial awareness

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81
Q

What makes up the white matter of the cerebral hemisphere?

A

Corona radiate and internal capsule

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82
Q

What does the corona radiata connect the cerebral cortex with?

A
  • Basal ganglia
  • Thalamus
  • Spinal cord
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83
Q

What is the cranial nerves?

A

Majority carry sensorimotor information

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84
Q

Where can you find the cranial nerves?

A

Innervate the head and neck

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85
Q

What is the cranial nerves made up off?

A

Twelve pairs with point of attachments

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86
Q

How do we identify the twelve pairs of cranial nerves?

A
  • Individual names

- Roman number

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87
Q

Finish the sentence:

The cranial nerves is a complex system of linked chambers surrounding…

A

deep brain structures

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88
Q

What is the I cranial nerves?

A

Olfactory nerve

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89
Q

What is the II cranial nerve?

A

Optic nerve

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90
Q

What is the III cranial nerve?

A

Oculomotor nerve

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91
Q

What is the IV cranial nerve?

A

Trochlear nerve

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92
Q

What is the V cranial nerve?

A

Trigeminal nerve

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93
Q

What is the VI cranial nerve?

A

Abducent nerve

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94
Q

What is the X cranial nerve?

A

Vagus nerve

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95
Q

What is the XI cranial nerve?

A

Spinal accessory nerve

96
Q

What is the XII cranial nerve?

A

Hypoglossal nerve

97
Q

What is the IX cranial nerve?

A

Glossopharyngeal nerve

98
Q

What is the VIII cranial nerve?

A

Vestibulacochlear nerve

99
Q

What is the VII cranial nerve?

A

Facial nerve

100
Q

What is the ventricular system?

A

A complex system of linked chambers surrounding deep brain structures

101
Q

What is the choroid plexus part of?

A

The ventricular system

102
Q

What is the choroid plexus?

A
  • Produces the cerebrospinal fluid

- Invagination of the pia matter

103
Q

What is meant by invagination?

A

A cavity or pouch formed by being turned inside out or folded back

104
Q

Where is the choroid plexus located?

A

In the lateral, third and fourth ventricles

105
Q

What does the choroid plexus appear as?

A

Spongy-like apperance

106
Q

What is continuously secreted and reabsorbed in the ventricular system?

A

The cerebrospinal fluid

107
Q

What is the function of the cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Homeostasis and protection

108
Q

What is the circulation pathway of the cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Lateral ventricle to the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle to the subarachnoid space

109
Q

What reabsorbed the cerebrospinal fluid?

A

The arachnoid villi

110
Q

What covers the brain and the spinal cord?

A

Meninges

111
Q

What is meninges function?

A

Protection

112
Q

How many layers of membranes does meninges have?

A

Three

113
Q

What are the three layers of membranes of the meninges?

A
  • Dura mater
  • Arachnoid mater
  • Pia mater
114
Q

Describe the dura mater of meninges:

A
  • Fibrous

- Loosely attached to the CNS

115
Q

Describe the arachnoid mate:

A
  • Collagenous

- Blood vessels and CSF

116
Q

Describe the pia mater:

A
  • Very thin

- Firmly attached to the surface of the CNS

117
Q

What is the Falx cerebri of the meninges?

A

Sagittal plane between the two cerebral hemispheres

118
Q

What is the tentorium cerebelli?

A

Horizontal plane between the occipital lobes and cerebellum

119
Q

What is the flax cerebri above?

A

The corpus callosum

120
Q

What is the tentorium cerebelli continuous with?

A

Continuous with the falx cerebri

121
Q

What is the dural venous sinuses?

A
  • In the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli

- Venous drainage of the brain

122
Q

What is a synapse?

A

A specialised junction where a neurone contacts and communicates with another neurone or cell (muscle or gland)

123
Q

What are the types of synapse?

A
  • Electrical

- Chemical

124
Q

What is an electrical synapse?

A

Located at specialised membrane sites called gap junctions

125
Q

What is gap junction made out of?

A
  • 2 connexons

- 6 connexins

126
Q

What is a electrical synapse a direct transfer of?

A

Ionic currents between cells

127
Q

Which synapse is bidirectional?

A

Electrical synapse

128
Q

Which is the faster synapse?

A

Electrical synapse

129
Q

What is a chemical synapse?

A

Chemical messenger via neurotransmitters

130
Q

Which synapse is unidirectional?

A

Chemical synapse

131
Q

Which is the slower synapse?

A

Electrical synapse

132
Q

What is the structure of a chemical synapse?

A
  • Presynaptic terminal
  • Synaptic cleft
  • Postsynaptic terminal
133
Q

What is the presynaptic terminal?

A
  • Contains synaptic vesicles

- Active zone

134
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A
  • Made of matrix of proteins

- Adhesion

135
Q

What is the postsynaptic terminal?

A
  • Postsynaptic density

- Receptors

136
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

A chemical messenger meeting four criteria

137
Q

What are the four criteria that must be meant to be a neurotransmitter?

A
  • Synthesised in presynaptic neurone
  • Exert an action on postsynaptic cell
  • Exogenous administration mimics the endogenous effects
  • Specific mechanism to remove it from the synaptic cleft
138
Q

What are the three types of neurotransmitters?

A
  • Amino acids
  • Amines
  • Peptides
139
Q

How are peptide neurotransmitters synthesised?

A
  • Rough ER to Golgi apparatus which activated peptide transmitter
  • Producing secretary granules
140
Q

Where are all neurotransmitters stored?

A

The presynaptic terminal

141
Q

How are the amines and amino acids synthesised?

A

Precursor molecule synthesis by synthetic enzyme forming a neurotransmitter molecule.
Then transport protein forms a synaptic vesicle around neurotransmitter

142
Q

What is a neurotransmitter released?

A
  • Import of neurotransmitter = presynaptic terminal is polarised causing voltage-gated ions to open
  • Movement to active site = synaptic vesicles move
  • Docking at plasm zone = vesicles join presynaptic membrane
  • Ca^2+ triggers exocytosis = fusing membrane of vesicle and presynaptic membrane
  • Neurotransmitters are realised in to synaptic cleft
  • Endocytosis via Cathrin-coated vesicles = close membrane and reload with neurotransmitters by fluctuation of H^+
143
Q

How do neurotransmitter effect postsynaptic terminal?

A

Bind to specific receptors which are transmembrane proteins embedded in postsynaptic density where a conformation change occurs when activated by neurotransmitters

144
Q

What are the two types of receptors at the postsynaptic terminal?

A
  • Ligand-gated ion channels

- G protein-coupled receptors

145
Q

What is the structure of a ligand-gated ion channel?

A
  • Membrane-spanning proteins
  • 4/5 subunits = pore
  • Ion selective
146
Q

What happens to a ligand-gated ion channel when activated?

A
  • ligand bind to active site
  • Conformational cang
  • Pore open
147
Q

What does ligand-gated channels effect?

A

Excitatory/inhibitory (depending on ion)

Fast

148
Q

What are the components of s GPCR?

A
  • Receptor (transmembrane protein)
  • G-protein (intracellular)
  • Effector (ion channel or enzyme)
149
Q

What happens when GPCRs are activated?

A

Ligand bind to active site
Conformational change of G-protein
Activation of effector

150
Q

What are the effects of GPCRs?

A

Slower but lasts longer

151
Q

What must happen to a neurotransmitter to allow another run of synaptic neurotransmission?

A

Removal of neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft

152
Q

What are two examples of amino acid neurotransmitters?

A
  • Glutamate

- GABA

153
Q

What are the receptors for glutamate?

A

AMPA, Kainate and NMDA

154
Q

What are the receptors for GABA?

A

GABAa and GABAb

155
Q

Is the glutamate neurotransmitter must abundant for excitatory or inhibitory?

A

Excitatory

156
Q

How is glutamate synthesised?

A

From glutamine by the enzyme glutaminase

157
Q

What is the action of glutamate terminated?

A
  • Reuptake by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAAT)

- Loaded into synaptic vesicles (antiproton transporters)

158
Q

What are the two ionotropic glutamate receptors?

A

AMPA

NMDA

159
Q

Describe the AMPA receptor to glutamate:

A
  • Ligand-gated
  • Permeable to Na+ and K+
  • Fast excitatory synaptic transmission
160
Q

Describe the NMDA receptor to glutamate:

A
  • Ligand-gated and voltage-gated
  • Permeable to Na+, K+ and Ca2+
  • Slow excitatory synaptic potential
161
Q

What are the three metabotropic glutamate receptors?

A
  • Group I
  • Group II
  • Group III
162
Q

What metabotropic glutamate receptor increase synaptic transmission and excitability?

A

Group I

163
Q

What metabotropic glutamate receptor decreases synaptic transmission and excitability?

A

Group II and group III

164
Q

What does GABA stand for?

A

γ-Aminobutyric Acid

165
Q

Is the GABA neurotransmitter the main neurotransmitter for for excitatory or inhibitory?

A

Inhibitory

166
Q

How is GABA synthesised?

A

From glutamate by glutamic acid descarboxylase (GAD)

167
Q

How is GABA terminated of action?

A
  • Reuptake by Na+ - dependent transporters

- Metabolised by the enzyme GABA transaminase in astrocytes

168
Q

Which GABA receptor is ionotropic?

A

GABAa

169
Q

Which GABA receptor is metabotropic?

A

GABAb

170
Q

Describe GABAa receptors:

A
  • GABA-gated Cl- channels
  • α-β-α-β-γ subunits
  • Binding sites between α-β subunits
  • Located at postsynaptic
  • Mediate fast and tonic inhibition
171
Q

Describe GABAb receptors:

A
  • GPCR
  • Inhibit violate-gated Ca2+ channels
  • Opens K+ channels
  • Inhibit the adenylyl cyclase pathway
  • Dimer: two seven transmembrane subunits
172
Q

What are the two dimes of GABAb?

A
  • B1: binding site for GABA

- B2: interacts with the G protein

173
Q

Give 3 examples of amine neurotransmitters:

A
  • Acetylcholine
  • Serotonin
  • Catecholamines
174
Q

What are the three catecholamines?

A
  • Dopamine
  • Norepinephrine
  • Epinephrine
175
Q

What is the receptor for acetylcholine?

A

Muscarinic and Nicotinic

176
Q

What is the receptor for serotonin?

A

5TH 1-7

177
Q

What is the receptor for dopamine?

A

D1 and D2

178
Q

What are the receptors for norepinephrine?

A

α & β

179
Q

What are the receptors for epinephrine?

A

α & β

180
Q

How is acetylcholine synthesised?

A

By chlorine acetyltransferase (ChAT) from choline and acetyl CoA

181
Q

How is acetylcholine degraded?

A

By acetylcholinesterase (AChe) in the synaptic cleft to choline and acetic acid

182
Q

How is choline taken up in the presynaptic cell?

A

By choline co-transporters with Na+

183
Q

Which acetylcholine receptor is ionotropic?

A

Nicotinic

184
Q

What acetylcholine receptor is metabotropic?

A

Muscarinic

185
Q

Describe nicotinic receptors:

A

Ligand-gated ionotropic receptors
Permeable to Na+, K+ and Ca2+
Excitatory effect

186
Q

Describe muscarinic receptors:

A

GPCRS
Five types: M1-M5
Nervous system: M1, M4 and M5

187
Q

What does M1 and M5 couple to?

A

Gq

188
Q

Is the coupling of M1/M5 to Gq excitatory or inhibitory?

A

Excitatory

189
Q

What does M4 couple to?

A

Gi

190
Q

Is the coupling of M4 to Gi excitatory or inhibitory?

A

Inhibitory

191
Q

What does acetylcholine act on?

A
  • Basal forebrain

- Brainstem

192
Q

What is acetylcholine involved in?

A
  • Attention
  • Arousal
  • Reward
  • Learning and memory
193
Q

What is the actual name of serotonin?

A

5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)

194
Q

How is serotonin synthesised?

A

From amino acid tryptophan by a sequence of enzymatic reactions

195
Q

What enzyme synthesised 5 HTP from tryptophan?

A

Tryptophan hydroxylase

196
Q

What enzyme synthesised serotonin from 5 HTP?

A

5 HTP decarboxylase

197
Q

How is serotonin terminated?

A
  • Reuptake from synaptic led by membrane transporters

- Reloaded in to synaptic vesicle or degraded by MAO

198
Q

What type of receptor is 5TH3?

A

Ionotropic - ligand gated Ca2+ channel

199
Q

What type of receptors are 5TH 1-7 excluding 5TH 3?

A

Metabotropic

200
Q

Is the receptor 5-TH cause an inhibitory or excitatory effect on presynaptic/postsynaptic neurones?

A

Both

201
Q

Where are serotonergic neurons located?

A

Raphe Nucleus of the brainstem

202
Q

Where does serotonin effect?

A

Cortex
Hypothalamus
Spinal cord

203
Q

What is serotonin included in?

A
  • Sleep/wake cycles
  • Mood/emotion
  • Feeding behaviour
  • Thermoregulation
  • Pain
204
Q

Where are catecholamines neurotransmitters derived from?

A

Amino acid tryosine

205
Q

How are catecholamines terminated?

A
  • Reuptake from synaptic cleft by membrane transporters

- Reloaded into synaptic vesicles or degraded by MAO

206
Q

What is catecholamines involved in?

A
  • Motor control
  • Mood
  • Attention
  • Arousal
207
Q

How do the D1 family receptors of dopamine act?

A

Gs (excitatory)

Activate ionic channels (Na+, K+ and Ca2+)

208
Q

What are the receptors in the D1 family?

A

D1, D5

209
Q

How do the D2 family receptors of dopamine act?

A

Gi (Inhibitory)
Activate K+ channels
Inhibit Ca+2 channels

210
Q

What are are the receptors in the D2 family?

A

D2, D3 and D4

211
Q

What are the functions of dopamine?

A
  • Motor (nigrostriatal pathway)
  • Behaviour: mesocortical and mesolimbicpathway
  • Endocrine: tuberohpophyseal pathway
212
Q

What are the other names for norepinephrine and epinephrine?

A

Noradrenaline and adrenaline

213
Q

How are the action of norepinephrine and epinephrine mediated?

A

By GPCRs = α1, α2, β1 and β2

214
Q

How are norepinephrine and epinephrine synthesised?

A

By neurons of brainstem

215
Q

What are norepinephrine and epinephrine important in?

A
  • Control of wakefulness and alertness
  • Control of mood
  • Stress reaction
216
Q

Give 2 examples of peptide neurotransmitter:

A
  • Insulin

- Somatostatins

217
Q

What do peptide neurotransmitter activity depend on?

A

Amino acid sequence and length

218
Q

How are peptide neurotransmitters synthesised?

A

Pre-propeptide to propeptide to peptide by proteases

219
Q

How are peptide neurotransmitters degraded?

A

By peptidase into inactive amino acids

220
Q

What can peptide neurotransmitters be released with?

A

Smaller neurotransmitter

221
Q

What are the differences between peptide and smaller neurotransmitter?

A
  • Synthesised in the cell body
  • Stored in dense-core vesicles (Golgi)
  • Exocytosis not limited to active zone and requires non-localised increase of Ca2+ concentration
222
Q

What are the actions of peptide neurotransmitters?

A
  • Sensory perception
  • Emotion
  • Pain
  • Stress
  • Reproduction
  • Reward
  • Analgesia
  • Food intake
223
Q

What type of receptors are involved in with peptide neurotransmitter?

A

GPCRs

224
Q

What are the characteristics of a neuromodulator?

A
  • Mediators
  • Produced by neuronal or non-neuronal cells
  • Cannot be stored
  • Released as convectional neurotransmitter
  • Regulate the release of the neurotransmitter release/post
  • GPCRs
  • Slower response
225
Q

What are the different types of neuromodulator ?

A
  • Conventional neurotransmitters acting on autoreceptors
  • Lipid mediators
  • Gaseous mediators
226
Q

Where can you find auto receptors?

A

Presynaptic membrane

227
Q

What are auto receptors sensitive to?

A

Own neurotransmitters

228
Q

What type of receptors are auto receptors?

A

Mainly GPCRs

229
Q

What type of mechanism are auto receptors?

A

Self-regulating

230
Q

What is the endocannabiniod system relating to neuromodulators?

A

Feedback system to regulate conventional synaptic transmission

231
Q

Where is the endocannabinoid system synthesised?

A

By post synaptic cell when every active

232
Q

What does endocannabinoid system do?

A

Reduces the opening of presynaptic calcium channels inhibiting neurotransmitter release

233
Q

What are the two main GPCRs of the endocannabinoid system?

A

CB1

CB2

234
Q

What are the two main ligands of the endocannabinoid system?

A
  • Anandamide (AEA)

- 2-Arachydonil glycerol (2-AG)

235
Q

What type of neuromodulator is the endocannabinoid system?

A

Lipid mediator

CSC1005 - Integrated Human Physiology (18 decks)

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