Cells, ions, n shit Flashcards
Carbohydrates) classes
F:
= Mono-, Di-, Poly-saccharides
= Structure & Source of energy
Intercalated discs:
Discs speed Vs standard cell membrane:
Syncytium:
= (only heart) Special tissue bands inbetween myocardial cells increase AP cell spread rate(400x) for thus Syncytium
= 400x faster than standard cell membrane drom/Inotropy
= Group of cardiac cells physiologically function as a unit, “working together in sync” “top in syncytium to bottom”
1Hemostasis:
2Inflammation:
3Epithelialization:
4Neovascular:
5Collagen synthesis:
1= vaso/strict, platelet aggregate, coagulation fibrin (normothermic)
2= Granulocytes, macrophages & Lymphocytes eat, Mast cells released
3= “rebuild” epithelial cells go to wound making scab ~48Hrs after cut
4= new capillaries made (neo new) via previous cap/s +exchanging
5 = fibroblasts go to wound & synthesize collagen creating scar (w/ tension lines quicker/better), Too much synthetization makes Keloid
Epithelialization of skin healing process
= “rebuilding” epithelial cells go to wound making scab ~48Hrs from initial exposure
Collagen synthesis of skin healing process
= fibroblasts go to wound & synthesize collagen creating scar (w/ tension lines quicker/better), Too much synthetization makes Keloid
cells sent with Inflammation stage of soft tissue healing
Granulocytes, macrophages & Lymphocytes eat & Mast cells released
phagocytosis:
macrophages eats & grows bad bacteria then grow a flag to show what antibodies to make for cellular response
Blood:
Plasma:
Leukocytes:
Erythrocytes:
= Mixture of water, cells, proteins, & suspended elements.
= makes up 55% of the blood volume
= WBC & platelets make up the “Buffy Coat”
= RBC make up 45%
Platelet Phase of hemostasis:
2nd phase, Platelets aggregate, or collect and adhere. Slows hemorrhage from capillaries and small vessels- splint fractures to decrease of clots being broken down & bleeding again
Coagulation Phase of hemostasis:
3rd phase Clotting factors activated and released into bloodstream through a very complex cascade of events Triggers series of chemical reactions; formation of strong protein fibers (fibrin)
Blood-Brain Barrier) built so:
Prevents & Protects:
= CNS capillary walls thicker, more complete, not as permeable as elsewhere in body.
= Doesn’t permit interstitial flow of proteins & materials as freely as normal capillaries, Protects w/ need lipid loving to get through, anything that can get through can cause damage
Baroreceptors) Fn:
A&P:
= receptors that monitor blood pressure
= Great vessels recept/ Gives feedback to brain > Sympathetic NS Activation, AArch & carotid arteries> feedback to medulla >SNS
CNS blood supply) 1 Brain’s % of body weight & uses for ATP
2 Brains Oxy & glucose consumption:
Brain is supplied by:
1= 2% }Uses lots of blood & oxy, can only use glucose for ATP
2= Consumes 25% of body’s glucose & 20% of oxygen supply
3= Circle of Willis} Carotid system (anterior) & Vertebrobasilar system (posterior)
Most prevalent intracellular Ion=
Most prevalent extracellular ion=
Potassium
Sodium
Hyperkalemia affects leads to=
messed up cell membranes leaking out of cells
Bone Cells
Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, Osteoclasts,
Osteoblasts:
= Promote bone repair after fractures by producing bone matrix; important in PTs w/ broken bones.
Osteoprogenitor Cells:
bone Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts, aiding in bone repair post-fracture; important in bone repair from bone trauma
Osteocytes:
Help maintain bone structure & strength; crucial for understanding PTs w/ bone diseases like osteoporosis.
Osteoclasts:
Osteoclast disorders:
Resorb bone to regulate Ca+ levels, critical in PTs w/ metabolic bone disorders or Ca imbalances
= Osteoporosis & Osteopenia
Chondrocytes:
Maintain cartilage
Blood Cells:
= RBC (Erythrocytes), WBC (Leukocytes), platelets (Thrombocytes)
Erythrocytes F:
RBC Transport O2; critical in hypoxia or hemorrhage management.
Leukocytes
WBC Fight infections; increased & sent to areas of sepsis or infection.
Thrombocytes
= Platelets Facilitate clotting; essential in hemostasis
Immune Cells & Processes
Mast Cells, Macrophages, IgE (Immunoglobulin E), phagocytosis
Mast Cells:
Release histamine & other chemicals during inflammatory responses; overactivation causes allergies or anaphylaxis, underactivity impairs inflammation.
Macrophages:
Perform phagocytosis; critical in infection control & tissue repair.
IgE (Immunoglobulin E):
Triggers mast cell activation in anaphylaxis, managed w/ epinephrine
Phagocytosis:
Process where cells like macrophages & neutrophils engulf pathogens; defective phagocytosis leads to persistent infections.
Neurons:
Transmit signals via action potentials; damage results in sensory or motor deficits.
Keratinocytes:
Produce keratin to protect skin; overproduction causes thickened skin (psoriasis), underproduction increases vulnerability to injury.
Alveolar Cells:
Type I facilitate gas exchange, Type II produce surfactant to reduce alveolar collapse; dysfunction leads to respiratory distress.
Endocrine Cells
Beta Cells (Pancreas), Alpha Cells (Pancreas),
Chromaffin Cells (Adrenal Medulla)
Endocrine Beta Cells (Pancreas):
Secrete insulin to regulate blood glucose; destruction causes diabetes mellitus.
Endocrine Alpha Cells (Pancreas):
Produce glucagon to increase blood glucose; overproduction results in hyperglycemia, underproduction causes hypoglycemia.
Endocrine Chromaffin Cells (Adrenal Medulla):
Release epinephrine & norepinephrine; overactivity leads to hypertension (pheochromocytoma), underactivity reduces stress response.
Chondrocytes:
Maintain cartilage matrix by producing collagen & proteoglycans; critical in joint cushioning & growth plates.
Blood’s Leukocytes:
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes
Neutrophils:
= First responders in bacterial infection; phagocytose pathogens & release reactive oxygen species (ROS).
Eosinophils
Combat parasitic infections; involved in allergic reactions by releasing histamine.
Basophils: Release histamine & heparin to mediate inflammation.
Monocytes
Differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells; phagocytose pathogens & present antigens.
Lymphocytes
Include B cells (antibody production), T cells (cytotoxic & helper roles), & natural killer (NK) cells for tumor/virus destruction.
Muscle Tissue) cells
Skeletal Myocytes, Cardiac Autorhythmic & Contractile Myocyes, Smooth Myocytes
Muscle Tissue) Skeletal Myocytes:
Long, multinucleated cells w/ striations; enable voluntary movement via sliding filament mechanism (actin-myosin).
Muscle Tissue)Cardiac Myocytes types
Autorhythmic, Contractile & Smooth Myocytes
Cardiac Muscle T.) Autorhythmic Cells:
Contractile Cells:
=Generate & conduct electrical impulses; include SA & AV node cells for heart rhythm control.
= Perform mechanical contraction, ejecting blood during systole.
Nervous system) major components
= Neurons, Neurotransmitters, Glial cells,
Muscle Tissue) Smooth Myocytes
= Non-striated cells in visceral organs; control involuntary processes like peristalsis & vasoconstriction.
Nervous System) Neurons
= Specialized for signal transmission; sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), & interneurons.
Nervous System) Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh), Dopamine, Serotonin, Glutamate, GABA
NS Neurotransmitters) Acetylcholine (ACh):
Dopamine:
Serotonin:
= Excitatory in skeletal muscles; inhibitory in cardiac muscle.
= Modulates motor control, mood, & reward pathways.
= Regulates mood, sleep, & gut motility.
Nervous system) Afferent neurons
Efferent neurons
Interneurons
= sensory transmit stimuli from body to CNS.
= Motor Transmit signals from CNS to muscles & glands.
= Facilitate communication between sensory & motor neurons in the CNS
NS Neurotransmitters) Glutamate:
GABA:
= Main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS.
= Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS.
Nervous System) Glial cells
Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Microglia, Schwann Cells:
NS Glial cells) Astrocytes:
Microglia:
Oligodendrocytes:
Schwann Cells:
= Regulate blood-brain barrier & nutrient supply
= Immune defense in CNS.
= Myelinate CNS axons.
= Myelinate PNS axons.
Endocrine/Hormones System) Glucagon:
Insulin:
Cortisol
: Secreted by alpha cells of pancreas; increases BG by stimulating glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis. Binds to receptors on liver, adipose tissue, & heart (reg/s CO).
= Secreted by beta cells; lowers BG by enhancing cellular uptake & glycogenesis.
Endocrine/hormone) Cortisol
Epinephrine
= Stress hormone from adrenal cortex; promotes gluconeogenesis & anti-inflammatory effects.
= Adrenal medulla hormone; increases HR, cardiac output, & bronchodilation during stress.
Endocrine/hormone) Parathyroid Hormone (PTH):
Thyroid Hormones (T3/T4):
= Increases blood Ca+ by stimulating bone resorption & renal reabsorption.
= Regulate metabolism, growth, & development.
Respiratory System) cells
= Alveolar Type I & 2, Ciliated Epithelial Cells, Goblet Cells
Respiratory System) Alveolar Type I Cells:
Alveolar Type II Cells:
= Thin squamous cells forming the majority of alveolar surface; essential for gas exchange.
= Produce surfactant to reduce surface tension & prevent alveolar collapse.
Cartilage) Chondroblasts:
Chondrocytes
= “build” Extracellular matrix (ECM)
= “keep” maintain ECM
Respiratory system) Ciliated Epithelial Cells:
Goblet Cells:
= Line airways; move mucus & trapped debris out of respiratory tract.
= Produce mucus to trap particles & protect airway lining.
Skin) Carotene
yellow/orange pigment: is converted to vitamin A & facilitates vision & immune system
Skeletal) Fibroblasts
= Secrete extracellular matrix proteins (e.g., collagen & elastin) in cartilage & ligaments.
Muscle) Satellite Cells
= Muscle stem cells located on the surface of skeletal muscle fibers; repair & regenerate damaged muscle.
Skin Integumentary System) cells
= Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Langerhans Cells, Merkel “tactile” Cells
Skin Integumentary System) Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Langerhans Cells
Merkel “tactile” Cells:
= Produce keratin for protective barrier (nails, palms, soles)
= Produce melanin for UV protection.
= Detect pathogens & trigger immune responses.
= Detect fine touch & pressure stimuli.
Endothelial Cells:
Line blood vessels; regulate vascular tone, permeability, & clotting.
Mesothelial Cells:
Pancreatic Acinar Cells:
= Line body cavities (pleura, peritoneum); secrete lubricating fluid.
= Secrete digestive enzymes (e.g., amylase, lipase) into the duodenum
Enzymes) common function
Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions.
Enzymes) ATP Synthase:
Carbonic Anhydrase:
= Produces ATP using proton gradient in mitochondria.
= Catalyzes reversible conversion of CO2 & water to carbonic acid (critical in acid-base balance).
Enzymes) Amylase:
Lipase:
= Breaks down carbohydrates (starches) into simpler sugars (e.g., maltose); found in saliva & pancreas.
= Hydrolyzes lipids into glycerol & fatty acids; secreted by the pancreas.
Proteins) common functions
= Proteins serve structural, functional, & regulatory roles
Proteins) blood) Hemoglobin:
Albumin:
Fibrin:
Immunoglobulins (Antibodies): Produced by plasma cells; recognize & neutralize antigens.
= Binds O2 in red blood cells; facilitates O2 & CO2 transport.
= Maintains oncotic pressure in blood plasma; binds & transports substances like fatty acids & hormones.
= Stabilizes blood clots by forming an insoluble network of fibers.
Proteins) skeletal) Collagen:
Elastin:
= Provides structural integrity in connective tissues (EX skin, tendons, & bones).
= Provides elasticity to tissues like skin & blood vessels.
Proteins) Keratin:
= Structural protein in hair, nails, & skin.
Proteins) Actin & Myosin
Essential for muscle contraction & cellular movement.
Carbohydrates) Monosaccharides:
Disaccharides:
Polysaccharides:
}simple sugars: Glucose, Ribose, Deoxyribose
} Sucrose = Glucose + fructose
} Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose
Cations
(Positive Ions) Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Calcium (Ca+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Hydrogen (H+)
Cations) Sodium (Na+):
Potassium (K+):
Calcium (Ca+):
= Maintains osmotic balance; generates action potentials via voltage-gated channels.
= Regulates resting membrane potential; involved in muscle contraction & nerve conduction.
= Essential for muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, & bone structure.
Cations) Magnesium (Mg2+):
Hydrogen (H+):
= Cofactor for ATP-dependent reactions; stabilizes DNA & RNA.
= Determines pH; regulated by buffers, lungs, & kidneys.
Anions)
= Neg/ Ions) Chloride (Cl-), Bicarbonate (HCO3-), Phosphate (PO4³-)
Anions) Chloride (Cl-)
Bicarbonate (HCO3-),
Phosphate (PO4³-)
= Maintains osmotic pressure & electrical neutrality; major component of gastric acid (HCl).
= Buffer in blood; regulates acid-base balance.
= Component of ATP, DNA, & cell membranes; vital for energy transfer.
Renal System) cells, Principal Cells,
= Podocytes, Juxtaglomerular Cells, Principal Cells
Renal system) Podocytes:
Juxtaglomerular Cells:
Principal Cells:
= Form filtration slits to allow selective filtration of blood.
= Secrete renin to reg/ BP & Na balance.
= in collecting ducts; reg water & Na+ reabsorption via ADH & aldosterone.
