Cards for next test Flashcards
phrenology
studying bumps on the skull; can reveal a persons mental abilities and character traits
localization of function
the idea that various brain regions have particular functions
biological psychologists
the scientific study of how biology and psychology are related
what do nerve cells do
conduct electricity and “talk” to one another by sending chemical messages across a tiny gap that separates them
what does each part of the brain do
specific brain systems serve specific functions
what do we do with the information processed from the different brain systems
integrate the information to construct our experiences of sights, sounds, meanings, and memories, pain and passion
how is our adaptive brain wired
by our experience
biopsychosocial systems
are used to understand our behavior, culture, and community; how everything is made up of each other and helps for other things in our body
how do our brains relate to those of animals
depends on the animal, but for the most part they all follow the same principles
what is a neuron
a nerve cell that acts as a building block for our body’s neural information system
what does a neuron consist of
a cell body and its branching fibers
what is a dendrite and what does it do
the neurons branching extensions; receive information and conduct toward the cell body
what is an axon and what does it do
the lengthy part; passes that message through its terminal branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
what is the saying for dendrites and axons
dendrites listen; axons speak
terminal branches of axon
form junctions with other cells
cell body
the cell’s life support center
what is the myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue; covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
what happens if the myelin sheath is damaged
multiple sclerosis results
what is multiple sclerosis
communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control
when do neurons transmit messages
when stimulated by signals from our senses or when triggered by chemical signals from other neurons
what is action potential
an impulse that a neuron fires; a brief electrical charge that travels down its axon
how do neurons generate electricity
from chemical events
what is an ion
electrically charged atoms
what does the fluid outside an axons membrane have in regards to ions
mostly positively charged ions
what does a resting axons’s fluid interior have in regards to ions
mostly negatively charged ions
what is resting potential
the positive outside/negative inside state
selectively permeable
when the axons surface is very selective about what it allows through its gates
what happens when a neuron fires
first section opens its gates, and positively charged sodium ions flood through the cell membrane
what happens when the first sections opens its gate and does all that fun stuff when a neuron fires
causes another exon channel to open; the process will continue
depolarize
what happens when the neurons fire
refractory period
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
what happens during a refractory period
the neuron pumps the positively charged sodium ions back outside; it can then fire again
excitatory
somewhat like pushing a neurons accelerator
inhibitory
more like pushing its brake
how is action potential triggered
when excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals then it can happen
what happens to the action potential
travels down the axon, which branches into junctions with other neurons and other stuff
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
what is the neurons reaction
all or none response
what is an all or none response
when a neuron either fires or doesn’t fire; there is no in-between
how do we distinguish a gentle touch from a big hug?
a strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often; but it does not affect the action potential’s strength or speed/
squeezing a trigger harder won’t make the bullet go faster
synapse
the junction between the axon tip and the dendrite
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers
what does the neurotransmitter do
its molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to the side of the receiving neuron (like a key fitting a lock); when it does this ions flow in, allowing it to know that the neuron is ready to fire
what happens to the excess neurotransmitters
reabsorbed; called reuptake
what is acetylcholine (ACh)
one of the best understood neurotransmitters; plays a role in learning and memory
what is acetylcholine the messenger of
junction between motor neurons and skeletal muscles
what happens when ACh is released to our muscle cell receptors
the muscle contracts
how do we become paralyzed
if ACh transmission is blocked, the muscles cannot contract
what is morphine
opiate drug that elevates mood and eases pain
endorphins
natural opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and to pleasure; “morphine within”; like the runners high
dopamine
influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
dopamine malfunctions
oversupply linked to schizophrenia; undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in parkinson’s disease
serotonin
affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
serotonin malfunctions
undersupply linked to depression (some drugs are sued to raise it)
norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal
norepinephrine malfunctions
undersupply can depress moods
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA malfunctions
undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
glutamate
a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
glutamate malfunctions
oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures
if drugs make us feel so good, why not always take them
because once the brain is flooded with whatever it is, it may stop producing its own natural opiates; so when the drug is removed the brain may be deprived of its opiates, causing extreme discomfort
what is an agonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
explain an agonist
it is similar enough to a neurotransmitter that it can mimics its effects and create a “high”;/
it can also bind to it because it is similar, but instead block its function
nervous system
the body’s speedy; electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
the body’s decision maker; brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
responsible for gathering information and for transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts
nerves
electrical cables formed of bundles and axons; link the CNS with the body’s sensory receptors, muscles, and glands
how many neurons does the nervous system information travel through
three
what are the three ways
sensory, motor, inter neurons
sensory neurons
carry messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor neurons
carry instructions form the central nervous system out to the body’s muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
what nervous system is sympathetic (arousing)
peripheral
what nervous system is parasympathetic (calming)
central
two components of the nervous system
somatic and autonomic
somatic
enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles
autonomic
control our glands and the muscles of our internal organs, influencing things like glandular activity, heartbeat, and digestion
sympathetic nervous system
arouses and expands energy; this can accelerate your heartbeat, raise blood pressure, slow digestion, things like that to make you ready and alert
parasympathetic nervous system
(when all that stuff is over) produces opposite effects, conserving energy as it calms you by decreasing heartbeat and so on
neural networks
the brains neurons cluster into work groups called this
spinal cord
a two-way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain
what do other groups of cells do together
connect with other cells in the neural networks next layer; things like learning an instrument or language occurs as experience strengthens connections (neurons that fire together wire together)
describe what goes on with the spinal cord
ascending neural fibers send up sensory information, and descending fibers send back motor control information
what illustrates the spinal cords work
the neural pathways governing our reflexes
reflexes
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
how does information travel to and from the brain
by way of the spinal cord
endocrine system
a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers; which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues including the brain; when they act they can affect our interest in sex, food, and aggression
how fast does the endocrine system work
takes a few seconds for things to happen, whereas the the nervous system takes barely any time at all
is it good or bad that the endocrine system takes longers
can be good because because the messages outlast the effects of neural messages
adrenal glands
pair of endocrine glands that sit above the kidneys and the epinephrine and norepinephrine that helps arouse the body in times of stress (adrenaline or no adrenaline) (fight or flight)
pituitary gland
under control of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and control other endocrine glands
oxytocin
a hormone that the pituitary gland releases; enables contractions associated with birthing, milk flow during nursing, and orgasm/; also related to trust
why is the pituitary gland considered the “master gland”
responds to signals from the hypothalamus, and then releases hormones that trigger other endocrine glands to secrete hormones that in turn influence the brain and behavior
lesion
to destroy; what scientists are able to safely do to tiny clusters of brain cells, leaving surrounding areas unharmed
how are scientists able to stimulate various parts of the brain and note the effect
electrically, chemically, or magnetically
electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified readout of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brains surface; are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp (it is like studying a car engine by listening to it)
computed tomography scans (CT)
examine the brain by taking x-ray photos that can reveal brain damage
positon emission tomography (PET)
depicts brain activity by showing each brain area’s consumption of its chemical fuel, the sugar glucose (once taken it can show up on these scans and provide hot spots while providing different tasks
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue
ventricles
fluid-filled brain areas
functional MRI
can revel that brains functioning as well as its structure
what is the brains oldest and innermost region
the brainstem
where does the brainstem begin
where the spinal cord sweeps as it enters the skull; it is responsible for automatic survival functions (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure)
what is that slight swelling called and what is its function
medulla; controls heartbeat and breathing
what sits above the medulla
the pons
what is the pons
helped coordinate movements
thalamus
egg shaped structures that act as the brains sensory control center; all senses except smell
reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
cerebellum
processes sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory/;
judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate sounds and textures
cerebral hemispheres
the two halves of the brain
limbic system
associated with emotions and drives
what consists of the limbic system
amygdala, hypothalamus, hypocampus
what does the hippocampus process
conscious memories
amygdala
linked to aggression and fear; is also related to the processing of emotional memories
hypothalamus
an important link the command chain governing bodily maintenance/ maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward/can secrete hormones
cerebral cortex
ultimate control and information processing center
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; can also play a role in leaning and thinking
what is each hemispheres cortex subdivided into
four lobes, separated by prominent fissures
fissures
folds
frontal lobes (behind forehead)
speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements
parietal lobes (at the top and to the rear)
receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobes (back of your head)
includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
temporal lobes (above the ears)
auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
prefrontal cortex
enables judgement, planning, and processing of new memories
what can damage to frontal lobes do
can alter personality and remove a persons inhibitions; with frontal lobes ruptured, people moral compass seems to disconnect from their behavior
what would happen with damage to the underside of the right temporal lobe
would still be able to describe faces (as its function is) but won’t be able to directly identify someone with a name
broca’s area
speaking
wernicke’s area
understanding
plasticity
ability to modify itself after damage
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
corpus callosum
large band that connects and carries messages between the left and right hemispheres
spit brain
isolates the brains two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callous) connecting them
what hemisphere is seeing
right
what hemisphere is language and speaking
left
what happens during split brain
the left hemisphere is dominant for verbal processing, so they will be able to say what they see on the right side; the right hemisphere cannot share information with the left so the patient is unable to say what he sees, but can draw it
left hemisphere
speech and calculations
right hemisphere
things involved with creativity
how is the right hemisphere good
excels in making inferences, helps us modulate our speech, helps orchestrate our sense of self
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
dual processing idea
that we are consciously aware of little more than whats on our screen of consciousness; much of the brain works offstage, out of sight
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
blind sight
acting as if you can see; cannot consciously see an object that is there, but yet you still know its there and can move around it or things like that
visual perception track
enables us “to think about the world”-to recognize things and plan future actions
visual action track
guides our moment to moment movements
mind processes on two separate tracks…
one operating at an explicit , conscious level/
the other at an implicit, unconscious level; both affect our perception, memory, attitudes, and other cognitions
when do we start fearing human
about 8 months old
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
environment
every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
how many chromosomes do we get from each of our parents
23 each
what is DNA
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
genes
small segments go the giant DNA molecules/
biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
what do environmental events do to genes
“turn on”; when turned on they provide the code for creating protein molecules
protein molecules
the boys building blocks
genome
the complete instructions got making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes
what do our genetic predispositions do
help explain both our shared human nature and our human diversity
genetic predispositions
our genetically influenced traits
identical twins
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two
facts about identical twins
although they may have the same genes, they may not have the same number of copies of those genes, meaning one twin may be more at risk for a disease than another/
most identical twins share a placenta but if they don’t then that explains why some can be different because one placenta can offer more nourishment than the other which alters different things
fraternal twins
develop from separate fertilized eggs; genetically no more similar than ordinary brothers and sisters
what twins are more similar in regards to extraversion (outgoingness) and neuroticism (emotional instability)
identical twins
divorce thing with twins
if you have a fraternal twin who has divorced, you are 1.6 more times likely to become divorced as well;/
if you have an identical twin who has divorced then you are 5.5 more times likely to become divorced too
similarities after being separated at birth for twins
identical twins will continue to be very much alike; while fraternal twins, although alike, do not exhibit similarities comparable to those of separated identical twins
genetic relatives
biological parents and siblings
environmental relatives
adoptive parents and siblings
results in regards to environment and adopted children
the environment shared by a family’s children has virtually no discernible impact on their personalities
molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
analogy to remember gene-environment interaction
genes and environment–nature and nurture–work together like two hands clapping
interact
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
epigenetics
study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change
what effect dies shared family environments play
have little effect on personality, and the stability of personality suggests a genetic predisposition
how does environment playa role in genetics
genetic predispositions and our surrounding environments interact which can then trigger gene activity, and genetically influenced traits can evoke responses from others
natural selections
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on two succeeding generations
evolutionary psychology
study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
mutations
random errors in gene replication
how are we predisposed to live
we share a genetic legacy so we are predisposed to behave in ways that promoted our ancestor’s surviving and reproducing
who tends to have a more recreational view of sexual activity
men; women have a relational view
why do men go coo coo for cocoa puffs involving women
mets attraction to multiple healthy, fertile-appearing partners increases their chances of spreading their genes widely
what do women look for in men
try to increase their own and their children’s chances of survival by searching for mates with eh potential for long term investment in their joint offspring
what do critics of evolutionary psychologists say
start with an effect and work backward for an explanation;/
do not recognize social and cultural influences;/
absolve people from taking responsibility for their sexual behavior
genome
individual variations; prenatal environment; and sex related genes, hormones, and physiology
social culture influences
parental and peer; cultural traditions and values’ and cultural gender norms
natural selection parts (4)
organisms’ varied offspring compete for survival/
certain biological and behavioral variations increase an organism’s reproductive and survival chances in a particular environment/
offspring that survive are more likely to pass their genes to ensuing generations/
over time, population characteristics may change
major influences on individual development
results from interaction of biological, psychological, and social cultural influences
