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Anatomy > Cardiovasvular System 1 > Flashcards

Cardiovasvular System 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the functions of blood?

A

Transportation

  • Oxygen, nutrients and hormones directly or indirectly to cells
  • Carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes away from cells

Regulation: maintains homeostasis of all body fluid

  • regulates body temperature
    • absorption of heat
    • vasodilation of blood vessels
  • regulates pH
  • regulates water content of cells

Protection

  • Contains immune cells and numeral agents that protect the body from:
    • pathogenic agents
    • foreign bodies
    • transformed Cells
    • Blood loss: clotting factors
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2
Q

What are the techniques of blood sampling?

A

Venipuncture
-sample taken from vein with hypodermic needle and syringe

Finger or heel stick
-Common technique for diabetic to monitor daily blood sugar

-method used for infants

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3
Q

What are the components of blood?

A

Plasma: 55%

Formed elements : 45%

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4
Q

What is plasma?

A

A watery liquid extracellular matrix containing proteins and dissolved substances (55% of blood)

91.5% water

  1. 5% other solutes
    - electrolytes, nutrients, gases, regulatory products

7% plasma proteins
-produced in the liver or by circulating blood cells

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5
Q

What are the plasma protein in plasma?

A

Albumin

  • maintains colloid osmotic pressure of in the blood
  • transport protein for steroids and fatty acids.

Globulins(immunoglobins)
-antibodies that bind foreign particles eg bacteria

Fibrinogen(fibrin)
-clotting

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6
Q

What are the formed elements in blood?

A

I. Red blood cells: erythrocytes
II. White blood cells: leukocytes

A. Granular: contains specific granules

  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • basophils
B. Agranular: no specific granules
   -Lymphocytes:
 T cell
  B cell
  Natural killer cells 
 -Monocytes 
III. Platelets: thrombocytes
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7
Q

Explain hemopoeisis(hematopoeisis)

A

Formation of blood cells

Includes: erythropoiesis, leukopoeisis and thrombopoeisis

Maintains a constant level of different cell types found in the peripheral blood

-erythrocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, thrombocytes and B lymphocytes are formed and mature in red bone marrow

T lymphocytes are formed in red bone marrow and mature thymus

Regulated by growth factors: erythropoetin, cytokines and thrombopoietin

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8
Q

Explain hematopoietic organ function

A

Yolk- sac phase- formation of blood islands in the 3rd week of gestation (lasts for 3-8 weeks)

Hepatic phase- main hemopoietic organ in second trimester

Bone marrow phase-begins during second trimester. (Also includes other lymphatic tissues eg spleen)

After birth: hemopoiesis takes place only in the bone marrow

NB: in diseases states where the bone marrow becomes non functional, spleen and liver can produce blood cells

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9
Q

Describe erythrocytes

A

Biconcave discs with a diameter of 7-8 um

  • lacks a nucleus and other organelles (Anaerobic)
  • contain the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin, which is the pigment that gives blood it’s really color
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10
Q

What is the life span of erythrocytes?

A

120 days

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11
Q

What is significant about the antigens on plasma membrane of RBCs?

A

They account for the ABO and Rh blood group systems

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12
Q

What are the functions of hemoglobin?

A

Consists of the globin protein which has four polypeptide chains (two alpha and two beta)

  • Each chain is bound to a ring-like non pigment called Heme
  • Each heme molecule has an iron (Fe2+) that binds reversibly with oxygen
  • Therefore each molecule of hemoglobin binds four molecules of oxygen and delivers it to the tissues
  • Binds with O2 from tissues and transports it to the lungs where it is exhaled
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13
Q

What is a hematocrit?

A

Percentage of total blood volume occupied by red blood cells

  • female normal range
    • 38%-46% (average of 42%)
- male normal range 
    - 40% -54% (average of 46% )
    - testosterone
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14
Q

What is anemia?

A

Not enough RBCs or not enough hemoglobin

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15
Q

What is polycythemia?

A
  • too many RBCs (over 65%)

- dehydration, tissue hypoxia, blood doping in athletes

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16
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

The main stimulus for erythropoiesis is hypoxia

Rate of erythropoiesis is measured by a reticulocyte count

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17
Q

Explain the process of erythropoiesis

A
  1. Some stimulus disrupts homeostasis
  2. Oxygen delivery to kidneys (and other tissues) is decreased
  3. Kidney cells detect low oxygen level. Increased erythropoietin secreted into blood
  4. Control center- proerythroblasts in red bone marrow mature more quickly into reticulocytes. More reticulocytes enter circulating blood
  5. Larger number of RBCs in circulation. This leads to increased oxygen delivery to tissues
  6. Return to homeostasis when oxygen delivery to kidneys increases to normal
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18
Q

Explain ABO blood groups

A

Based on 2 isoantigens called A and B found on the surface of RBCs
-display only antigen — blood type A

  • display only antigen — blood type B
    - display both antigens A and B — blood type AB
-display neither antigen — Blood type O Plasma contains isoantibodies to the A or B antigens not found in your blood

 - anti-A antibody reacts with antigen A
 - anti-B antibody reacts with antigen B
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19
Q

Give the specifics of Blood type A

A

Surface antigen: A

Serum antibody : anti-B

Can donate to: A and AB

Can receive from: A and O

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20
Q

Give the specifics of blood type B

A

Surface antigen: B

Serum antibody: anti-B

Can donate to: B and AB

Can receive from : B & O

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21
Q

Give the specifics of blood type AB

A

Surface antigen A and B

Serum antibody : none

Can donate to only AB

Can accept any type

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22
Q

Give the specifics of blood type O

A

No Surface antigen

Serum antibody: anti A and anti B

Can donate to any type

Can. Only accept from O

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23
Q

Give a background of Rh blood groups

A

Antigen was discovered in blood of Rgesus monkey

  • People with Rh antigens on RBC surface are Rh+
  • Normal plasma contains no anti-Rh antibodies
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24
Q

Explain Rh group transfusion

A

Antibodies develop only in Rh- blood type and only with exposure to the antigen
-transfusion of positive blood

 - during a pregnancy with a positive blood type fetus

Transfusion reaction upon 2nd exposure to the antigen results in hemolysis of the RBCs in the donated blood

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25
Q

Explain hemolytic disease of newborn

A

Rh- mom and Rh+ fetus will have mixing of blood at birth

  • Mom’s body creates Rh antibodies unless she receives a Rhogram shot soon after first delivery, miscarriage or delivery, miscarriage or abortion
    • Rhogam binds to loose fetal blood and removes it from body before she reacts

If 2nd child is Rh+, hemolytic disease of the newborn may develop causing hemolysis of the fetal RBCs

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26
Q

What are leukocytes?

A
  • uncleared cells

- are the cells of the immune system

27
Q

What are the types of leukocytes?

A

granular and agranular

28
Q

What are granular leukocytes?

A
  • contains specific granules: conspicuous chemical-filled cytoplasmic granules that can be visible under light microscope
  • include eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils based on the straining of the granules
29
Q

What are agranular leukocytes?

A
  • do not have specific cytoplasmic granules

- include the lymphocytes and monocytes

30
Q

What are the functions of neutrophils?

A
  • respond most quickly to bacterial infection: acute inflammatory reactions—> fast responders
  • phagocytic cells: engulf bacteria

Once pathogen is engulfed:
-Lysosome destroys bacteria (digestion)

  • Defensins bore holes in bacterial cell membrane
  • Oxidants (H2O2)
31
Q

What is the lifespan of neutrophils?

A

3 to 5 days

32
Q

Describe neutrophils

A

Called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN)

  • Makes up 60 to 70 of leukocytes
  • diameter is 10 to 12 um

Nuclei: 2 to 5 lobes

  • specific granules do not pick up stain hence the name neutrophil
  • Specific granules contains lysosome
33
Q

What is the function of eosinophils?

A
  • involved in fighting parasitic infection (MBP)
  • phagocytose antigen-antibody complexes
  • Slows down inflammation caused by basophils (produces histaminase)
34
Q

Describe eosinophils

A

Makes up 2 to 4% of circulating leukocytes

  • diameter is 10 to 12 um
  • nucleus typically bilobed
  • large, uniform sized specific granules stain red with acidic dyes
  • Specific granules contains Major Basic Protein (MBP)
35
Q

What are the functions of basophils?

A

Involved in allergic reactions

  • histamine: vasodilation
  • herapin: anticoagulant
36
Q

What is the life span of eosinophils?

A

8-12 days

37
Q

What is the lifespan of basophils ?

A

8-12 days

38
Q

Describe basophils

A

Less than 1% of circulating leukocytes

  • Diameter is 8 to 10 um
  • irregular s-shaped, bilobed nuclei
  • Large variable-sized granules stain with blue/black or purple with basic dyes: granules obscure the nucleus
  • Specific granules contains histamine and herapin
39
Q

How much of circulating leukocytes are lymphocytes?

A

20-25% of circulating leukocytes

40
Q

Describe lymphocytes

A

Diameter is 6-14 um

Dark round nucleus with a thin rim of cytoplasm

  • classified as small, medium or large lymphocytes
  • can be found in blood, lymph and tissues
  • Cells are immunocompetent which means they can recognize and respond to antigens
  • Cannot differentiate between different types on light microscope
41
Q

Lymphocytes are classified based on their …

A

Functions… natural killer, T cells, and B cells

42
Q

Describe T cells

A

Differentiate in the thymus

  • Cell mediated immunity
  • Attack viruses, fungi, cancer cells and transplanted organs directly
43
Q

Describe B cells

A

Differentiate in the bone marrow

  • humeral immunity
  • differentiate into plasma cells which produces antibodies to destroy bacteria and their toxins
44
Q

Describe natural killer cells

A

Programmed during development

Destroys a wide range of infectious microbes and some spontaneously arising tumors cells by direct attack

45
Q

How much of circulating leukocytes are monocytes?

A

3 to 8%

46
Q

What are monocytes?

A

Diameter is 12 - 20 um

Kidney shaped or horseshoe shaped nucleus with foamy blue cytoplasm

-Almost immediately migrated to the tissues and differentiate into microphages

47
Q

Where are fixed monocytes found?

A

In specific tissues:

  • alveolar macrophages in lungs
  • kupfer cells in liver
  • macrophages of spleen
48
Q

Where are wandering monocytes?

A

Wandering cells roams tissues and gathers at sites of infection

49
Q

What are the functions of monocytes?

A

Arrive late in inflammatory response but in great numbers:
Differentiate into wandering macrophages

  • phagocytosis of bacteria
  • phagocytosis of cell debris following infection
50
Q

What is leukocytosis?

A

Increase in white blood cells

Indicates infection, inflammation or allergic reactions

51
Q

What is leukopenia?

A

Decrease in white blood cells

Can be caused by radiation, chemotherapy, drug toxicity, stress

52
Q

Give the normal white blood cell accounts and what leads to them increasing

A
  • neutrophils 60-70% (up in bacterial infection)
  • lymphocyte 20-25% (up in viral/chronic infection)
  • monocytes 3-8% (up in fungal/viral infection)
  • eosinophil 2-4% (up in parasite or allergy reaction)
  • basophil less than 1% (up in allergy reaction)
53
Q

What is the life span if thrombocytes?

A

Life span 5-9 days

54
Q

Describe thrombocytes

A

Small membrane bound, anuckeated cytoplasmic fragments derived from megakaryocytes

Diameter is 2-4 um

Cytoplasm is “pinched off” and released into the blood

Contains cytoplasmic vesicles

Normal blood contains 250,000 to 400,000 platelets/mm

55
Q

What are the life span of thrombocytes?

A

5 - 9 days

56
Q

What is the function of thrombocytes?

A
  • Platelet plug formation in hemostasis
  • platelets store a lot of chemicals in granules that promote blood clotting and vasospasm
  • Stores growth factors which aid in the repair of damaged tissues
57
Q

What sickle cell anemia?

A

Genetic mutation leads to defect in hemoglobin molecule

-At very low oxygen levels, RBC is deformed by changes in hemoglobin molecule

Sickle-shaped cells rupture easily= Anemia
-cells die in about 10-20 days. The bone marrow cannot make enough RBCs fast enough to replace the lost ones

Cells not flexible so block blood vessels which leads to ischemia= painful crisis

58
Q

What is the most common reason for iron deficiency anemia?

A

Inadequate absorption

Loss

Insufficient intake

Increased demand

59
Q

Why are women at greater risk of iron deficiency anemia?

A

Pregnancy

Menstruation

60
Q

What are the symptoms of iron deficiency anemia?

A

Pallor

  • fatigue
  • lightheadedness
  • weakness
  • cold intolerance

Red blood cells:

Microcytic
Hypochromic
Poikilocytotic

61
Q

What is leukemia?

A

Red bone marrow cancers

Uncontrollable multiplication of white blood cells

Interferes with production of all cell lines leading to:

  • decreased oxygen carrying capacity
  • increased susceptibility to infection
  • abnormal blood clotting
62
Q

What are the general leukemia symptoms?

A

Anemia, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly and lymphadenopathy

63
Q

What is acute leukemia?

A

Symptoms develop rapidly and cells are immature

  • Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML)
  • Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
64
Q

What is chronic leukemia?

A

Symptoms develop slowly and cells are not more mature

  • Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
  • Chronic lymphoblastic leukemia (CLL)

Anatomy (29 decks)

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