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VAP > Cardiovascular > Flashcards

Cardiovascular Flashcards

1
Q

what is the definition of an artery?

A

blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart

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2
Q

what is the definition of a vein?

A

blood vessel that carries blood to the heart

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3
Q

what are the exceptions to the O2 concentration trends in arteries and veins?

A

pulmonary arteries/veins, umbilical arteries/veins in fetus

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4
Q

what is the first functional system to develop in vertebrate embryos?

A

the vascular system

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5
Q

what 2 processes does development of blood vessels occur via?

A

vasculogenesis and angiogenesis

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6
Q

which is first vasculogenesis or angiogenesis?

A

vasculogenesis

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7
Q

what is vasculogenesis?

A

de novo making of primitive blood vessels

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8
Q

what is angiogenesis?

A

remodelling of primary capillary networks, formation of arteries and veins

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9
Q

what do blood and vessels develop from in intraembryonic vasculogenesis?

A

lateral plate mesoderm

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10
Q

what do blood and vessels develop from in extraembryonic vasculogenesis?

A

extrembryonic mesoderm associated with yolk sac (endoderm derived)

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11
Q

what does intraembryonic vasculogenesis form?

A

dorsal aorta and posterior cardinal vein, capillary networks in mesoderm of each organ

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12
Q

what do de novo blood vessels develop from?

A

blood islands

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13
Q

what are blood islands?

A

small cell clusters where the peripheral cells give rise to the endothelial cells and the central cells become blood cells

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14
Q

what are hemangioblasts?

A

central cells of blood islands which develop into blood cells

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15
Q

what does extraembryonic vasculogenesis form?

A

the capillary network draining into the veins that brings nutrients and gases to the embryo

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16
Q

what causes endothelial cells to migrate in angiogenesis?

A

secreted factors (e.g. VEGF) and hypoxia

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17
Q

are arteries and veins made from the same endothelial precursor cells?

A

yes

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18
Q

where do veins and arteries sort from each other?

A

in the capillary plexus

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19
Q

where do angioblasts coalesce to form the aortal and cardinal vein beneath it?

A

the midline of the embryo

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20
Q

what ensures that arteries and veins only fuse with their blood vessel type?

A

different cell surface receptors

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21
Q

what induces vein formation?

A

arteries

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22
Q

what can nerves secrete to induce artery formation?

A

angiogenic factors (e.g. VEGF)

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23
Q

why do arteries and peripheral nerves grow alongside each other?

A

they induce each others’ formation

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23
Q

when does vasculo- and angiogenesis take place in the adult body?

A

new blood vessels after injury, in muscle after exercise, new vessels to bypass blocked vessels

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23
Q

what is the tunica interna made of?

A

endothelial cells and basement membrane

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23
Q

what is it called when new vessels are formed to bypass blocked vessels?

A

collateral circulation

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23
Q

what can arteries secrete to induce nerve formation?

A

nerve growth factors

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23
Q

what are the components of the arterial wall?

A

tunica interna, tunica media, tunica externa

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24
Q

what is the tunica media made of?

A

smooth muscle cells and elastic net, autonomic innervation

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24
Q

what is the function of tunica intima?

A

exchange with tissues

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24
Q

what is the arterial wall layer that varies the most in size?

A

tunica media

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25
Q

what is tunica externa made of?

A

loose connective tissue, vegetative nerves, vasa nervosum, vasa vasorum

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26
Q

what anchors blood vessels to the surrounding tissue?

A

tunica externa

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27
Q

what is the vasa vasorum?

A

vessels of the vasculature, nutrient supply to larger arteries

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28
Q

where are the conducting arteries located?

A

close to the heart

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29
Q

where are the distributing muscular arteries located?

A

further from the heart

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30
Q

what do arterioles have to regulate flow?

A

sphincters

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31
Q

what is the average capillary diameter?

A

5-15micrometers

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32
Q

what layers make up the capillary wall?

A

endothelium and outer basement membrane

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33
Q

what layers make up vein walls?

A

tunica intima, media and externa

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34
Q

what acts as a blood reservoir in liver and spleen?

A

the venous system- venous sinuses

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35
Q

what stops backward flow in veins?

A

valves formed by tunica interna

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36
Q

what promotes venous return?

A

contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle and pulsation of adjacent arteries

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37
Q

what type of large blood vessels are found superficially?

A

veins

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38
Q

what is the name of regions where collateral arteries join with other arteries?

A

anastomoses

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39
Q

what is the Latin name of the network of blood vessels reaching a given tissue or organ?

A

rete arteriosum

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40
Q

what is the name of arteries which don’t anastomose with other arteries?

A

terminal or end arteries

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41
Q

what happens when terminal arteries are blocked?

A

tissue dies

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42
Q

where are terminal arteries found?

A

heart, brain, central artery of retina, kidneys

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43
Q

what are arteriovenous anastomoses?

A

connections between arterioles and venules bypassing a capillary bed

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44
Q

what structures are able to interrupt flow to/from a capillary bed?

A

barrier arteries and sphincter veins

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45
Q

what is a rete mirabile?

A

exuberant parallel branching from a blood vessels that reunites in a single vessel

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46
Q

where are rete mirabile found?

A

in brain, in renal glomeruli of kidney

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47
Q

what is a portal venous system?

A

when blood from a capillary bed pools into another capillary bed through veins before going to the heart

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48
Q

what is the function of portal venous systems?

A

to transport products directly from 1 region to another, avoiding spreading to the rest of the body

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49
Q

where does the hepatic portal system take blood from?

A

capillary beds of GI tract, spleen, pancreas

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50
Q

where does the hepatic portal vein take blood to?

A

capillary beds in sinusoids of the liver

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51
Q

what is the function of the hepatic portal system?

A

absorption and detoxification of metabolites before they reach systemic circulation

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52
Q

what drains venous blood from the liver into the caudal vena cava?

A

hepatic veins

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53
Q

where do hepatic veins drain blood from and to?

A

from liver into caudal vena cava

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54
Q

what are 3 examples of portal systems?

A

hypophyseal portal system, renal portal system, hepatic portal system

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55
Q

how many main chambers do fish have in their hearts?

A

2 - atrium and ventricle

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56
Q

what do fish breathe through?

A

their gills

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57
Q

where does blood pass from ventral aorta in fish?

A

through gills where its oxygenated, then via dorsal aorta to supply head and body

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58
Q

what structure in the fish developed into lungs in mammals?

A

swimbladder

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59
Q

what does the swim bladder do?

A

fills with air so the fish can float

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60
Q

what divides the heart into its 4 chambers?

A

septum

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61
Q

in what group did the 4 chambered heart evolve independently?

A

archosaurs

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62
Q

which gill arch artery became the aorta in mammals?

A

gill arch 4 artery

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63
Q

which gill arch section became the common carotid in mammals?

A

section between arches 3 and 4

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64
Q

which blood supply in fish became the external and internal carotid in mammals?

A

blood supply to head

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65
Q

what contains the ventricles of the heart, base or apex?

A

apex

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66
Q

where are atria in the heart?

A

craniodorsal

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67
Q

which ventricle is long and pointy?

A

left

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68
Q

which ventricle is crescent shaped and cranial?

A

right

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69
Q

which ventricle has a thicker muscular wall?

A

left

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70
Q

what sort of action does the cardiac muscle have?

A

wringing

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71
Q

in which species is the aorta contractile?

A

rabbit

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72
Q

which veins does the right atrium receive?

A

cranial and caudal vena cava, azygos vein, coronary sinus

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73
Q

what is the azygos vein?

A

a single vein which drains the dorsal thorax

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74
Q

what is the coronary sinus?

A

a venous tube that drains almost all of the heart

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75
Q

what is the function of the intervenous crest?

A

directs blood ventrally instead of blood colliding

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76
Q

what are auricles?

A

side pouches of atria

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77
Q

why are auricles darker tissue than rest of atria?

A

different embryological origin from atria

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78
Q

what is the function of auricles?

A

increase the volume of atria

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79
Q

where are auricles located relative to their respective atrium?

A

cranially and to the left

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80
Q

what is the foramen ovalis?

A

connection between left and right atrium in fetus

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81
Q

what is the name of the connection between the left and right atrium in the fetus?

A

foramen ovalis

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82
Q

what is the fossa ovalis?

A

dent in heart between left and right atrium left by foramen ovalis

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83
Q

what is the name of the dent in adult hearts left by the foramen ovalis?

A

fossa ovalis

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84
Q

what is the right atrioventricular valve called?

A

tricuspid valve

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85
Q

why is the right atrioventricular valve called tricuspid?

A

3 flaps anchored to ventricle

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86
Q

what anchor the RAV to the ventricle?

A

chorda tendinae

87
Q

what is the RAV anchored to?

A

the papillary muscles

88
Q

what are the trabeculae carneae?

A

fine ridges on internal surface of ventricle

89
Q

what is the function of the trabeculae carnae?

A

create rolling cylinders of blood between them, bulk blood flow can occur above them

90
Q

what path does blood take from the right ventricle?

A

spirals around cranial side of heart to the left side, pulmonary artery emerge on the left hand side

91
Q

why does the left ventricle often look very small in dissection?

A

thick muscle makes it collapse post mortem

92
Q

what carries the coronary vessels?

A

coronary groove between muscles of atrium and ventricle

93
Q

where do the pulmonary veins enter the heart?

A

roof of left atrium

94
Q

how many pulmonary veins are there?

A

6/7

95
Q

what is the left atrioventricular valve called?

A

bicuspid/mitral valve

96
Q

what are the moderator bands?

A

strands from the septum to the wall of the ventricle

97
Q

what is the latin name for moderator bands?

A

trabecula septomarginalis

98
Q

what direction does blood pump out of left ventricle?

A

craniodorsally through aorta

99
Q

what are the ossa cordis?

A

bones of the heart formed in big and old cows, horses, deer

100
Q

what does the great coronary vein disgorge into?

A

right atrium

101
Q

where does the right coronary artery come out of the heart?

A

cranially

102
Q

what path does the right coronary artery take?

A

rolls around right side of heart as circumflex

103
Q

what path does the left coronary artery take?

A

rolls around left side of heart as circumflex

104
Q

what is the origin of the right descending branch in dogs and ruminants?

A

from left coronary artery

105
Q

what is the origin of the right descending branch in horses and pigs?

A

from right coronary artery

106
Q

what is the origin of the right descending branch in cats?

A

either right or left coronary artery

107
Q

what does the blood in coronary vein run in the same direction as?

A

blood in left circumflex coronary artery

108
Q

what % of cardiac output is coronary?

A

15%

109
Q

why do major vessels lie outside the myocardium?

A

they would be occluded by pressure inside heart

110
Q

in which species does the azygos come from the left side of the heart?

A

pigs, some ruminants

111
Q

what does the azygos drain into in species with L. azygos?

A

coronary sinus

112
Q

what supplies parasympathetic innervation to heart?

A

vagus nerves with branches to SAN and AVN

113
Q

what is the effect of cardiovagal stimulation?

A

reduces heart rate

114
Q

what supplies sympathetic innervation to heart?

A

fibres from stellate and middle cervical ganglia to all myocardium and vessels

115
Q

what is the effect of cardiosympathetic stimulation to heart?

A

increase rate and force of contraction

116
Q

what is the audible/palpatable (and visible at ICS6 in dogs + horses) beat of the heart?

A

apex beat

117
Q

what produces the ‘lub’ sound of the heart?

A

T and M valves closing

118
Q

what produces the ‘dup’ sound of the heart?

A

A and P valves closing

119
Q

what are the functions of the lymphatic system? (4)

A

drains + filters interstitial fluid, drains FAs + 2-monoglycerides from intestine via lacteals, transports and houses immune cells, lymph nodes and MALT

120
Q

what are the 2 forces in the blood capillaries?

A

osmotic and hydrostatic pressure

121
Q

what does osmotic pressure drive in the capillaries?

A

water from interstitium into capillaries

122
Q

what direction does hydrostatic pressure drive water in in the capillaries?

A

out of the capillaries (all directions except backwards)

123
Q

what is the symbol for osmotic pressure?

A

Π

124
Q

what is the symbol for hydrostatic pressure?

A

P

125
Q

is hydrostatic pressure or osmotic pressure greater at arterial end of capillaries?

A

hydrostatic pressure

126
Q

is hydrostatic pressure or osmotic pressure greater at venous end of capillaries?

A

osmotic pressure

127
Q

is the difference between hydrostatic and osmotic pressure greater at the arterial or venous end of capillaries?

A

arterial

128
Q

what percentage of efflux drains into the lymphatic system?

A

about 15%

129
Q

what are lymph capillaries?

A

blind-ending, endothelium lined, permeable collecting chambers

130
Q

which are more permeable, lymph capillaries or blood capillaries?

A

lymph capillaries

131
Q

what does lymph contain as well as water?

A

rbcs, wbcs, proteins (antibodies, hepatic proteins), microbes

132
Q

where are lymphatic vessels not present?

A

CNS, bone marrow, cartilage, epidermis, alveoli, placenta

133
Q

how do lymphatic vessels move lymph fluid? (3)

A

skeletal muscle pump, nearby arterial pulsing, intrinsic smooth muscle contractility

134
Q

what causes intrinsic smooth muscle in lymphatic vessels to contract?

A

sympathetic nerves if BP lowers

135
Q

where does most lymph drain into blood?

A

at venous angle, into left external jugular vein

136
Q

what drains into the left external jugular vein?

A

most lymph vessels

137
Q

what drains via the right lymphatic duct to the right jugular vein?

A

right head, neck, forelimb and thorax

138
Q

what is the only lymph chamber in domestic mammals?

A

the cisterna

139
Q

where is the cisterna?

A

between CdVC, aorta and spine

140
Q

what are lymphaticovenous anastomoses?

A

dormant connections between lymphatic system and venous system

141
Q

how many sacs does the lymphatic system develop from?

A

6

142
Q

what do the chambers of the early lymphatic system grow out of?

A

veins

143
Q

what grows out of the chambers of the early lymphatic system?

A

ducts

144
Q

how many of the sacs regress in lymphatic development?

A

5

145
Q

which sac doesn’t regress in lymphatic development?

A

the cisterna chyli

146
Q

what might inadequate lymph drainage lead to in tissues?

A

oedema

147
Q

what might inadequate lymph drainage lead to in cavities?

A

effusions

148
Q

do large animals tend to get more oedema or effusions?

A

oedema

149
Q

do small animals tend to get more oedema or effusions?

A

effusions

150
Q

what might rupture of the thoracic duct lead to?

A

chylothorax

151
Q

what is chylothorax?

A

chyle filling up the thoracic cavity

152
Q

what is a lymphocentre?

A

a lymph node/cluster of lymph nodes

153
Q

in which species are lymphocentres a single lymph node?

A

carnivores

154
Q

in which species are lymphocentres a cluster of lymph nodes?

A

ungulates

155
Q

what does lymph drain into lymph nodes via?

A

afferent lymphatics at the periphery

156
Q

what forms the internal network of lymph nodes?

A

capsules (elastic and smooth muscle)

157
Q

what are the capsules in lymph nodes made of?

A

elastic and smooth muscle

158
Q

what divides the lymph fluid into compartments in lymph nodes?

A

trabeculae given off by capsules

159
Q

what is the first thing lymph encounters in the lymph nodes?

A

the germinal centres

160
Q

what are the germinal centres?

A

B-lymphocytes surrounded by T cells

161
Q

what is the final part of the lymph nodes lymph drains through before leaving?

A

medullary sinuses- series of inflated tubes lined by antibody secreting mature B-cells

162
Q

where does lymph exit the lymph node?

A

efferent lymphatics at the stalk

163
Q

in which species is the lymph node reversed?

A

pigs

164
Q

what is inflammation of the lymph node called?

A

lymphadenitis

165
Q

what does MALT stand for?

A

mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

166
Q

which ducts does MALT not have?

A

afferent ducts

167
Q

where is MALT found (8)?

A

pharynx (tonsils), nose, intestine, prepuce, vagina, mammary glands, larynx, 3rd eyelid

168
Q

where are ungulate tonsils usually situated?

A

under mucosa

169
Q

how does the spleen develop?

A

as mesodermal swelling in greater omentum

170
Q

what is the shape of the dog spleen described as?

A

England-shaped

171
Q

how many splenic arteries does the visceral surface of the spleen receive?

A

around 25

172
Q

what is the red pulp of the spleen?

A

complex reticuloendothelial mesh and blood-filled sinusoids, many monocytes

173
Q

what is the function of the red pulp of the spleen?

A

breaks down rbcs, stores rbs, makes rbcs in fetus

174
Q

what percentage of the blood in the resting horse is stored in the spleen?

A

30%

175
Q

what is the white pulp of the spleen made of?

A

lymphoid B-cell nodules or cylinders, surrounded by T-cells

176
Q

what innervation does the spleen receive?

A

sympathetic, a few vagal fibres, some myelinated sensory fibres

177
Q

what is the spleen a common site of in dogs?

A

tumours

178
Q

what is the thymus?

A

a primary lymphoid organ

179
Q

where is the thymus?

A

ventral to trachea, dorsal to sternum, cranial to heart

180
Q

what is the function of the thymus?

A

formation and maturation of T lymphocytes

181
Q

where do immature T-lymphocytes infiltrate the thymus from?

A

the internal thoracic artery

182
Q

what happens to thymocytes in the thymus cortex?

A

weakly binding thymocytes are eliminated

183
Q

what are Hassall’s corpuscles?

A

epithelial whorls of endo-, meso- and potentially ectoderm

184
Q

what is the first functional organ in the embryo?

A

the heart

185
Q

what does the circulatory system develop from?

A

mesoderm, primarily lateral plate

186
Q

where is the mesoderm that the heart develops from located?

A

lateral to the cranial part of the neural plate

187
Q

what is the endocardial tube?

A

tube of fused cardiac precursors that will form the inner layer of the heart

188
Q

what does the myocardium secrete?

A

cardiac jelly

189
Q

what does the cardiac jelly separate?

A

the myocardium and endocardium

190
Q

what lie between the primitive atrium and ventricle?

A

sulci (atrioventricular and bulboventricular)

191
Q

what acts as the pacemaker in the heart tube?

A

sinus venosus

192
Q

what help in preventing back flow in the heart tube?

A

the cardiac jelly and sulci

193
Q

what is the first change in looping of the heart tube?

A

a leftward and ventral movement of the ventricle

194
Q

what is dextrocardia?

A

folding of the heart tube in the wrong direction

195
Q

what is dextrocardia often accompanied by?

A

situs invertus

196
Q

what does the inversus viscerum mutation lead to?

A

randomised left-right orientation of the heart

197
Q

what gene is normally only transcribed in cells on the left side of the primitive streak?

A

nodal

198
Q

where is the nodal gene found to be transcribed in inv/inv mutants?

A

on the right side of the primitive streak

199
Q

where is the nodal gene found to be transcribed in iv/iv mutants?

A

randomly on right or left side

200
Q

what will the caudal part of the bulbus cordis give rise to?

A

the right ventricle

201
Q

what does the primitive atrium remain as in the heart?

A

the auricles

202
Q

what do the atria arise from?

A

sinus horn and pulmonary veins

203
Q

what fuse to form the septum intermedium?

A

the cranial and caudal cushions

204
Q

what is the first septum to form in the atria?

A

septum primum

205
Q

what is the ostium primum?

A

the gradually diminishing hole between the atria in cardiac development

206
Q

what creates the ostium secundum?

A

apoptosis in some of the cells near the cranial edge between the atria

207
Q

what is the second septum to form?

A

septum secundum

208
Q

where does septum secundum grow from?

A

the roof of the atria to the right of the septum primum

209
Q

what is the name for the remaining gap between the septum secundum and septum intermedium?

A

the foramen ovale

210
Q

what causes the foramen ovale to close at birth?

A

the change in pressure in the atria

211
Q

where does the muscular ventricular septum grow from?

A

the caudal edge of the original bulboventricular sulcus

212
Q

what is the final step in septation?

A

formation of the spiral septum

213
Q

what do the ridges that form the spiral septum develop from?

A

neural crest cells

214
Q

where does fusion of the paired ridges in spiral septum formation begin?

A

at the caudal edge of the truncus arteriosus

215
Q

why does fusion of the paired ridges in spiral septum formation spread rostrally and caudally?

A

ensures that the ventricles don’t become separated before outflow is partitioned

216
Q

what does the spiral septum link with caudally?

A

the muscular ventricular septum and septum intermedium

217
Q

what are the two shunts that allows the lung to be bypassed in foetal circulation?

A

foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus

218
Q

what causes the foramen ovale to close after first breath?

A

reduced pressure in right atrium means septum primum is flattened against septum secundum

219
Q

what can be used to keep the ductus arteriosus patent?

A

injection of prostaglandins

220
Q

what can induce the ductus arteriosus to constrict if it remains patent?

A

prostaglandin inhibitors

221
Q

what is the most commonly diagnosed congenital heart defect in dogs?

A

patent ductus arteriosus

222
Q

what may be seen as part of the tetralogy of fallot?

A

ventricular septal defects

223
Q

what is the lymphoid role of bone marrow?

A

formation and maturation of B lymphocytes

VAP (10 decks)

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