Carbohydrates Flashcards
Called “sugars” and “starches” with a symbol of Cn(H2O)n
Carbohydrates
Made of many atoms of carbon and water molecules (H2O) together with either aldehyde or ketone.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates stores in form of ______, which provides a short-term energy reserve.
Glycogen
It is a carbohydrate that contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit.
Monosaccharides
Carbohydrates that contains two to ten monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other.
Oligosaccharides
Polymeric carbohydrate that contains ass many monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other.
Polysaccharides
A monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde functional group. Often called polyhydroxy aldehydes.
Aldose
A monosaccharide that contains a ketone functional group.
Ketose
These are images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other.
Superimposable mirror images (Achiral)
These are images where not all points coincide when the images are laid upon each other.
Nonsuperimposable mirror images (Chiral)
It is an atom in a molecule that has four different groups bonded to it.
Chiral center
It is a molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable.
Chiral molecule
It is a molecule whose mirror images are superimposable.
Achiral molecule
What molecule has 3 or 4 elements, and sometimes contains oxygen.
Achiral molecule
Does not have 4 different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon (2 hydrogens)
Achiral
Has 4 different atoms bonded to the carbon.
Chiral
Has 4 different groups bonded to the carbon.
Chiral
Only has 3 atoms bonded to the carbon.
Achiral
Monosaccharides, the simplest type of carbohydrate and the building block for more complex types of carbohydrates, are almost always “______”
Right-handed
These are isomers that have the same molecular and structural formulas but differ in the orientation of atoms in space.
Stereoisomerism
This subtype of stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperimposable.
Enantiomers
What are the 2 subtypes of Stereoisomerism?
Enantiomers and Diastereomers
What subtype of stereoisomers whose molecules are not mirror images of each other.
Diastereomers
A compound that rotates the plane of polarized light.
Optically active compound
It is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a clockwise directions, means “right”.
Dextrorotatory compound
It is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a counterclockwise, means “left”
Levorotatory compound
Under Fischer projection formula: If the -OH is in the right, then it’s a ________
D-isomer
Under Fischer projection formula: If the -OH is in the left, then it’s a _________
L-isomer
It is a projection formula with a two dimensional structural notation for showing the spatial arrangement of groups about chiral centers in molecules.
Fischer Projection Formula
Fischer projection formula was named after _______.
Emil Fischer
A projection formula which is a two-dimensional structural notation that specifies the three-dimensional structure of a cyclic form of a monosaccharide.
Haworth Projection Formula
A cyclic monosaccharide containing a six-atom ring is called
Pyranose
A cyclic monosaccharide containing a five-atom ring is called
Furanose
It is is the hemiacetal carbon atom present in a cyclic monosaccharide structure.
Anomeric carbon atom
Cyclic monosaccharide formation always produces two stereoisomer — an alpha form and a beta form. These two isomers are called _____.
Anomers
What forms when a monosaccharide reacts to oxygen?
Acidic sugar
What are the three types of Acidic sugar?
Aldonic Acid
Alduronic Acid
Aldaric Acid
What acidic sugar uses weak oxidizing agent and has acid group on top.
Aldonic Acid
What acidic sugar uses enzyme and has an acid group on bottom.
Alduronic Acid
What acidic sugar uses strong oxidizing agent and has acid groups both on top and bottom.
Aldaric Acid
What forms when a monosaccharide is added with alcohol?
Sugar Alcohol
It is used as a sweetening agent in chewing gum.
D-sorbitol
It is a reaction between disaccharide, where two sugars are combined together.
Glycoside Formation
It is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by replacement of the hemiacetal carbon -OH group with an -OR group. It can exist both in alpha and beta form.
Glycoside
is the bond in a disaccharide resulting from the reaction between the hemiacetal carbon atom -OH group of one monosaccharide and an -OH group on the other monosaccharide.
Glycosidic linkage
1/3 as sweet as sucrose, combination of 2 glucose in a-D glucose formation and known as Malt sugar.
Maltose
It s a combination of 2 glucose units in a-D-glucose and B-D-glucose formation.
Cellobiose
Combination of galactose & glucose, known as Milk sugar.
Lactose
Combination of glucose and fructose, known as table sugar.
Sucrose
What building blocks are right handed (D-glucose)?
Monosaccharides
What building blocks are L-phenylalanine?
Proteins
Pure monosaccharides are
water soluble, white, crystalline solids
The simplest of the monosaccharides, these two trioses are important intermediates in the process of
glycolysis, a series of reactions whereby glucose is converted into two molecules of pyruvate.
D- D-Glyceraldehyde & Dihydroxyacetone
PENTOSES OF PHYSIOLOGIC:
Found in nucleic acid, structural elements of nucleic acids and coenzymes, eg, ATP, NAD, NADP, flavoproteins. The phosphates of these are intermediates in pentose phosphate pathway.
D-Ribose (DNA Sugar)
PENTOSES OF PHYSIOLOGIC:
Formed in metabolic processes.
D-Ribulose
PENTOSES OF PHYSIOLOGIC
Found in gum arabic, plum, and cherry gums. It is a constitudent of glycoproteins.
D-Arabinose
PENTOSES OF PHYSIOLOGIC:
Found in wood gums, proteoglycans, glycosaminogly cans.
D-Xylose (Wood Sugar)
PENTOSES OF PHYSIOLOGIC:
Found in the heart muscle. It is a constituent of a lyxoflavin isolated from human heart muscle.
D-Lyxose
a component of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and energy-rich compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Ribose
The prefix deoxy- means
“minus an oxygen”
It is the “sugar” of the body. The sugar carried by the blood, and the principle one used by the tissues.
D-Glucose
Also known as Grape sugar, Dextrose, and Blood sugar
D-Glucose
This can be changed to glucose in the liver and used in the body.
D-Fructose
Known as levulose fruit sugar or dietary sugar.
D-Fructose
This can be changed to glucose in the liver and metabolized. Synthesized in the mammary gland to make the lactose of milk.
D-Galactose
A constituent of glycolipids and glycoproteins (present in the brain).
D-Galactose
Chemical markers that distinguish various types of blood.
D-Galactose
This is a constituent of many glycoproteins
D-Mannose
a disaccharide consisting of a glucose unit and a galactose unit
D-Galactose
sometimes called brain sugar because it is a component of glycoproteins found in brain and nerve tissue
D-Galactose
______ are diastereomers whose molecules differ only in the configuration at one chiral center.
Epimers
Of all monosaccharides, it is the most abundant in nature and the most important from a human nutritional standpoint
D-Glucose
_______ tastes sweet, is nutritious.
D-Glucose
_______ is tasteless, and the body cannot use it.
L-Glucose
biochemically the most important ketohexose. It is also known as levulose and fruit sugar
D-Fructose
used as a dietary sugar not because it has fewer calories per gram than other sugars but because less is needed for the same amount of sweetness.
D-Fructose
Two monosaccharides are bonded together by a
glycosidic bond
______, one-third as sweet as sucrose, is produced whenever the polysaccharide starch breaks down, as happens in plants when seeds germinate and in human beings during starch digestion
MALTOSE
It is a common ingredient in baby foods and is found in malted milk.
MALTOSE
an interesting compound because of its use in alcohol production (fermentation).
MALTOSE
produced as an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose
CELLOBIOSE
ingredient in infant formulas that are designed to simulate mother’s milk.
LACTOSE
ingredient in infant formulas that are designed to simulate mother’s milk.
LACTOSE
used to describe the condition where milk- drinking ability continues into adulthood
Lactase persistence
a condition in which people lack the enzyme lactase, which is needed to hydrolyze lactose to galactose and glucose.
Lactose intolerance
Causes of Lactose intolerance:
- Genetic defect
- Physiological decline w/ age
- Injury to the mucosal lining of the intestines
caused by the absence of one or more of the enzymes needed or the conversion of galactose to glucose. In people with this condition, galactose and its toxic metabolic derivative galactitol (dulcitol) accumulate in the blood.
Galactosemia
caused by the absence of one or more of the enzymes needed or the conversion of galactose to glucose. In people with this condition, galactose and its toxic metabolic derivative galactitol (dulcitol) accumulate in the blood.
Galactosemia
What can be the cause of Galactosemia?
mental retardation in infants and even death
is the most abundant of all disaccharides and occurs throughout the plant kingdom
SUCROSE
the enzyme needed to break the a, b(1 : 2) linkage in sucrose, is present in the human body
Sucrase
Sucrose hydrolysis (digestion) produces an
equimolar mixture of glucose and fructose called
invert sugar.
sweetener for food and beverages
H F C S / High-fructose corn syrup
Sugar substitutes of sucrose are:
- saccharin
- sodium cyclamate
- aspartame (nutra sweet)
is synthesized from sucrose by substitution of three chlorine atoms for hydroxyl groups.
- heatstable
- 600x sweeter than sucrose
- calorie free
Sucralose
an aspartame derivative. The same two amino acids are present as in aspartame.
- 7000x sweeter than sucrose
neotame
Two naturally occurring oligosaccharides:
a. Raffinose
b. Stachyose
Composed of trisaccharide, galactose, glucose, and fructose
Raffinose
Composed of tetrasaccharide, galactose, glucose, and fructose with additional galactose
Stachyose
a toxin found in the potato plant , is another example of an oligosaccharide-containing “complex” molecule.
Solanine
Amino sugars and their N-acetyl derivatives are important building blocks of polysaccharides found in:
chitin and hyaluronic acid.
present in the biochemical markers on red blood cells, which distinguish the various
blood types.
N-acetyl
MARKING SYSTEM FOR BLOOD TYPES:
- D-galactose
- N-acetyl-a-D-glucosamine
- N-acetyl-a-D-galactosamine
- a-L-Fucose (a-6-Deoxy-L-galactose)
The absence or presence of a _____ monosaccharide (attached to the second
galactose) determines blood type.
Fifth
oligosaccharide molecules that are attached to the plasma membrane of red blood cells
Biochemical markers
Type O blood lacks a _____.
fifth monosaccharide unit
What blood type has N-acetylgalactosamine as a fifth unit?
Type A blood
What blood type has galactose as a fifth unit?
Type B blood
What blood type contains both type A
and type B markers
Type AB blood
an alternate name for a polysaccharide
Glycan
is a polysaccharide in which only one type of monosaccharide monomer is present. ex: starch, glucan, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
homopolysaccharide
is a polysaccharide that is a storage form for monosaccharides and is used as an energy source in cells
STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDES
- a homopolysaccharide containing only glucose monosaccharide units.
- It is the energy-storage polysaccharidein plants.
- aka amylum
STARCH
Type of Starches:
Amylose and Amylopectin
Type of starches:
straight-chain glucose polymer, usually accounts for 15%-20% of the starch.
Amylose
Type of starches:
A branched glucose polymer, accounts for the remaining 80%-85% of the starch.
Amylopectin
- is a branched polysaccharide containing only glucose units.
GLYCOGEN
it is the glucose storage polysaccharide in humans and animals and sometimes referred to as animal starch.
GLYCOGEN
are the storage sites for glycogen in humans.
Liver cells and muscle cells
is a polysaccharide that serves as a structural element in plant cell walls and animal exoskeletons
STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDES
These two opposing processes are called _________________, the formation and decomposition of glycogen, respectively
glycogenesis and glycogenolysis
the structural component of plant cell walls
Gossypium hirsatum (CELLULOSE)
-is the most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide.
-the “woody” portions of plants—stems, stalks, and trunks—have particularly high concentrations of this fibrous, water-insoluble substance.
- Like amylose(a-1:4), cellulose (b-1:4) is an unbranched glucose polymer
Gossypium hirsatum (CELLULOSE)
The 2nd most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide, next to cellulose . Its function is to give rigidity to the exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects, and other arthropods. It also has been found in the cell walls of fungi
CHITIN
polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit in which one of the disaccharide components is an amino sugar and one or both disaccharide components has a negative charge due to a sulfate group or a
carboxyl group.
ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES
contains alternating residues of N-acetyl-b-Dglucosamine (NAG) and D-Glucuronate
HYALURONIC ACID
- Highly viscous hyaluronic acid solutions serve as lubricants in the fluid of joints,
- are also associated with the jelly-like consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye. (The Greek word hyalos means “glass”; hyaluronic acid solutions have a glass-like appearance.)
HYALURONIC ACID
small highly-sulfated polysaccharide with only 15–90 disaccharide residues per chain.
- blood anticoagulant. It is naturally present in mast cells and is released at the site of tissue
injury.
- It prevents the formation of clots in the blood and retards the growth of existing clots within the blood. It does not, however, break down clots that have already formed.
- The source for pharmaceutical heparin is intestinal or lung tissue of slaughter-house animals (pigs and cows).
HEPARIN
is at the core of the metabolic disorder known as diabetes; either the body does not produce enough insulin or body cells do not respond properly to the insulin that is produced
Insulin
It is released when blood-glucose levels are low
GLUCAGON
also called adrenaline, is released by the adrenal glands in response to anger, fear, or excitement.
EPINEPHRINE
also called adrenaline, is released by the adrenal glands in response to anger, fear, or excitement.
EPINEPHRINE
which is usually simply referred to as diabetes, is a metabolic disorder characterized by elevated levels of glucose
DIABETES MELLITUS
is the result of inadequate insulin production by the beta cells of the pancreas. Control of this condition involves insulin injections and special dietary programs
Type 1 diabetes
results from insulin resistance, a condition in
which cells fail to use insulin properly
Type 2 diabetes
