Building construction Flashcards
The combustibility of the interior finishes effects the behavior of fire and what several ways:
- It can contribute to the fire extension by flame spread over the surface of walls and ceilings
- It affects the rate of growth (which can lead to flashover).
- it add to the intensity of fire because that contributes fuel
- it can produce smoke and toxic gases that contribute to the live hazard
The term interior finish is:
- Generally applied to the materials used for the exposed face of the walls and ceilings of a building
- Including but not limited to fixed or movable walls and partitions, columns, and ceilings
- Commonly refers to finish on the walls and ceilings and not for coverings
Interior finishes can include such materials as:
Plaster, gypsum wallboard, wood paneling, ceiling tiles, plastic, fiber board, and other wall coverings
Term used in the international community for interior finish?
Interior lining
Building codes usually exclude surface treatments such as paint and wallpaper that are no thicker than?
1/28 inch
During a fire , thin materials tend to behave in a manner similar to
The material to which they are attached because the heat is transmitted to the material beneath the surface material
If there are multiple layers of surface material, however, such as several layers of vinyl, the surface material acts as
An insulator and will contribute to the spread of fire
At one time, floor coverings were not considered to contribute significantly to the development of fires because heat naturally rises. What increased awareness of a need to regulate floor coverings?
The introduction of various deep pile floor Carpets
What are surface burning characteristics of the material?
The degree to which fire can spread over the surface of a material
The speed of flame spread over an interior finish is influenced by what factors?
-The composition of the material
-Ventilation
– The shape of the space in which the material is installed
– Whether the finished material is applied to the ceiling or wall
Are an inexact science and cannot precisely duplicate the wide variety of real-life situations in which interior finish materials are found
Standardized fire test methods
When air is in motion, it possesses Kinetic energy. We feel this Kinetic energy as____
Wind
E= 1/2mv2
E=energy
M=mass of a body
V=velocity
Pg73
When the wind encounters a fixed object, it exerts a force. Wind exerts the following basic forces on a building:
Direct pressure-the impact effect the wind has on surface. This force may be reduced by streamlining the surface encountered.
Aerodynamic drag-when wind encounters an object, it’s fluid nature causes it to flow around the object. This exerts a drag effect on the object.
Negative pressure-a suction effect produced on the downwind side of the building resulting in an outward pressure.
When wind exerts force on a building there are 3 secondary effects that may be produced:
Rocking effects- a back and forth effect due to variations in the velocity of the wind.
Vibration-wind passing over a surface such as a roof may cause vibration on the surface depending on the velocity of the wind and the harmonic characteristics of the surface.
Clean off effect-the tendency of wind to dislodge objects from a building.
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The energy possessed by a moving object
Kinetic energy
In designing buildings to withstand the force of wind, the primary effect considered is the:
Force due to direct pressure.
*This force increases with the velocity of the wind and can be evaluated by the basic equation:
P=Cv(2)
V=velocity
P=static pressure
C= .00256 a numerical constant that accounts for the Air mass and simplifying assumptions of building behavior
When speaking about the effects of wind, the actual design pressure used by engineers must be adjusted to account for:
Building height
Surrounding terrain
Specific features relating to the shape of the building
*In addition, designers must consider the combined effects of wind forces and localized conditions, such as closely spaced buildings in an urban area.
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The force resulting from wind is particularly dangerous when it occurs against an ______
Unbraced wall
Fire personnel should also be alert for unbraced walls at:
Demolition sites and at fire damaged buildings where interior structural supports have collapsed or been destroyed.
The vibrational motion of the surface subjects buildings to forces known as _____ that can be very destructive, as history has shown
Seismic forces
Forces developed by earthquakes. Seismic forces are the some of the most complex forces exerted on a building.
Seismic forces
Earthquakes can occur anywhere on earth; however, major earthquakes occur most frequently in parts of the world known as:
Fault zones or zones of high probability
*Zones of high earthquake probability include the Pacific coast of the United States and Canada, Hawaii, Central Utah, and southern Illinois.
The vibrational motion produced by earthquakes can be:
Three dimensional
The force produced in a structural member when it is twisted
Torsional forces
Movements of relatively large amplitude resulting from a small force applied at the natural frequency of a structure
Resonant forces
The magnitude of the forces developed within a building during an earthquake depends on several factors, including the following:
- Magnitude of the vibratory motion
- Type of foundation
- Nature of the soil under the building
- Stiffness of the structure
- Presence of damping mechanisms within the building
Building codes may require that materials with greater surface burning rates be installed
Over a non-combustible material
Why do building codes make use of the flame spread rating of materials?
To establish some control over interior finishes
The classification of interior finishes are used to restrict the materials in vertical exits and exit corridors to those with
Low flame spreads
Materials with a class A interior finish
(0 to 25) rating are required in the vertical exits and most occupancies
Interior finish material with class B rating
(26 to 75) rating are required in corridors that provide exit access
Building codes generally allow an increase in the flame spread rating of interior finish materials in buildings equipped with
Automatic sprinkler system
Interior finish class C flame rating
(76-200)
What is the maximum flame spread rating allowed?
200
What is fire load?
Measure of the total fuel available to a fire, therefore, the total heat that can be released in a fire
The severity of a fire is determined by:
The fire load plus the rate at which the fuel burns
What is the heat release rate (HRR)?
Total amount of heat produced or released to the atmosphere from the convective – lift fire phase of a fire per unit mass of fuel consumed per unit time
The rate at which a fuel burns is determined by several factors. The most significant is:
The combination of fuel and available oxygen
Why is the combustibility of interior finish materials a significant factor in the development of fires and buildings?
In the case of interior finishes used on walls and ceilings, the combustible material always has a large area exposed to the surrounding oxygen
Interior finishes are tested to derive several measures of the materials flammability:
the flame spread rating and the smoke developed rating
Most commonly used method for evaluating the surface burning characteristics of materials
Steiner tunnel test
ASTM standard E 84 and UL 753
Steiner tunnel test
NFPA 255
Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning characteristics of building materials
What is the flame spread rating?
Numerical rating assigned to a material based on the speed and extent to which flame travels over its surface
Examination of the role of interior finishes is directed at materials applied to the
- Ceiling of a room or the upper portions of a room
- It is assumed that the most critical application of a material would be on the ceiling
Size of the”tunnel” used in the tunnel test
The tunnel consists of a horizontal furnace 25 feet long with a removable top. The interior furnace is 17 5/8 inches wide and 12 inches high
What are the Steiner tunnel test procedures?
- The sample material to be tested is attached to the underside of the top of the furnace and the assembly is lowered into place.
- A gas burner located at one end of the tunnel produces a 4 1/2 foot flame that is projected against the test material.
- The flame is adjusted to produce approximately 5000 BTUs per minute.
- The test is then continued for 10 minutes, during which time to travel of the flame along the test sample is observed
To derive the numerical flame spread rating, the flame travel along the test material is compared to two standard materials. Name them and describe process
- Asbestos cement board and red Oak flooring
- According to the test protocol, the flame will travel along the oak flooring 24 feet and 5 1/2 minutes.
- The flame spread of other materials during the test is compared to that red Oak.
- Obviously, the higher the flame spread rating, the more rapidly flame will spread
What is the flame spread rating of Asbestos cement board
0
What is the flame spread rating of red Oak
100
What is the significance of the flame spread rating?
- The flame spread rating developed in the tunnel test as a means of comparing the surface flammability of a material to standard materials under controlled test conditions.
- It is not an absolute measure of spread of fire travel.
The flame spread rating may not produce an accurate correlation with the actual behavior of a material in a fire. This is due to the effect upon
surface burning of such factors as room shape and dimensions and fuel load in a room
The thickness of the test specimen has an effect on the flame spread rating because a thicker material
- Has different thermal insulating properties than a thin material
- When interior finish materials are intended to be used in varying thicknesses, they must be tested in those thicknesses
For flame spread test results to be accurate, test specimens must be attached with the
Same materials and methods used in actual installations
What is smoke develop rating?
Is a measure of the relative visual obscurity created by the smoke from a tested material.
-The results are from the tunnel test
smoke developed rating procedure
- It is measured by a photo electric cell and a light source located at the end of the tunnel furnace.
- As with the flame spread rating, red Oak is used as a standard test material and has been assigned a smoke developed rating of 100. -Therefore, under test conditions, a material with a smoke developed rating of 200 produces smoke that is twice as visually obscuring as red Oak.
- it is very important to remember that the smoke developed rating is not an indication of the toxicity or volatility of the products of combustion of the interior finish materials
Codes limit the maximum smoke develop rating to be
450
What is volatility?
Ability of a substance to vaporize easily at a relatively low temperature
The flame spread rating of some interior finishes, most notably wood materials, can be reduced through the use of
Fire retardant coatings
-fire retardant coatings only affect the coated surface. They do not affect the untreated backside of a panel.
Several types of fire retardant coatings that may be available include:
-Intumescent paint’s
-mastics
-gas forming paints
cementitious and mineral fiber coatings
How do intumescent paint perform as fire retardant’s?
Expand upon exposure to heat to create a thick, puffy coating that insulates the wood surface from heat and excludes oxygen from wood
How do mastic coatings work as a fire retardant?
Forms a thick, noncombustible coating over the surface of the wood
How are fire retardant coatings used incorrectly?
- They must be applied at a specific rate of square feet per gallon and may require more than one coat.
- They also may not have a permanent effect if used in exterior applications or environments with humidity.
- In any case, products that have not been tested by a reputable laboratory should not be trusted
What does the ASTM E 84 test measure?
The surface burning characteristics of materials (the tunnel test).
It is useful because it provides reproducible results and is a widely recognized standard
Some materials will produce a fire hazard greater than indicated by the tunnel test when they are installed in an environment that approximates a real room. There are two reasons for this increased hazard:
1) flame spread is generally different over a vertical surface than across a horizontal surface
2) The walls and ceiling of a room provide for re-radiation of heat between the intersecting surfaces
Test developed that incorporates the size and shape of real rooms
Corner test
Early corner consisted of
A ceiling and 2 intersecting walls
The walls and ceiling of the assembly were aligned with the material to be tested
NFPA 265
Standard methods of fire tests for evaluating room fire growth contribution of textile coverings on full height panels and walls
NFPA 286
- More recently developed large scale test for wall and ceiling finish
- Fire tests for evaluating contribution of wall and ceiling interior finish to room fire growth
- Developed to handle materials that may not remain in place during the tunnel test, such as plastic materials that may melt and drip
NFPA 265 and NFPA 286 test procedure
- The material to be tested is placed on three of the walls. (The surface of the wall containing the door opening is not covered).
- In the 286 test, the material is placed on the ceiling if it is intended to be used in that manner.
- The materials are subjected to two different size gas flames
NFPA 265 and NFPA 286 results
These tests do not provide a numerical test results such as the flame spread rating derived from the tunnel test.
-Instead, the test material is charged either satisfactory or unsatisfactory depending on the extent of fire growth that occurs within the test room upon exposure to the two gas flames
Rooms In a healthcare facility will require class – – – interior finish materials
Class A or B interior finish materials
The international building code establish a specific acceptance criteria for interior finish materials to include:
Noting whether or not the flame spread to the ceiling of the test chamber
– the flame cannot spread to the outer extremity of the sample
– flashover cannot occur
– the peak rate of heat release cannot exceed 800 kW
– a maximum amount of smoke released
What is active fire protection?
Consists of equipment such as an automatic sprinkler system or fire alarm system that requires a power source for operation
What is passive fire protection?
- Relies on building construction in materials to contain fire or products of combustion.
- Firewalls or stair enclosures are examples of passive fire protection
What is compartmentation?
Subdivision of a building or floor levels of the building by fire rated walls or partitions
A lack of compartmentation can result in
Rapid spread of fire horizontally and vertically through a building
What does shelter in place mean?
Fire rated partition building compartmentation
- Fire rated partitions can provide areas of refuge for occupants when immediate or rapid evacuation is not possible, such as in the hospital
- Codes typically require fire rated partitions to subdivide patient floors so patients can be moved From the area of fire origin to a protected part of the floor
- occupants of high-rise residential buildings have survived fires simply by remaining in another apartment separated from the fire rated partitions.
- this protection requires that intervening doors be closed
Floor and ceiling assembly required compartmentation
Almost any floor and ceiling assembly or wall construction will act as a barrier to fire to some degree, but not every wall or a partition in a building is fire rated.
- Partition separating individual rooms within an apartment, are not fire rated.
- The degree of fire resistance required of a wall or partition will depend on its purpose.
- Building codere quirements are changing and requirements for compartmentation are seen less and less
What are firewalls?
- Also called area separation walls, are corrected to limit the maximum spread of fire.
- It’s a fire rated wall with a specified degree of fire resistance, built of fire resistive materials and usually extending from the foundation up to and through the roof of a building, that is designed to limit the spread of a fire within a structure or between adjacent structures
- firewalls subdivide a building into smaller pieces so that a fire and one portion of the building is limited to that area and does not destroy the entire building
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____ is only one of many considerations for the building designer and architect
Fire safety
To design an adequate structure, the engineer must first determine the _____ and _____ of the forces to which the structure will be subjected.
Type and magnitude
*Making this determination is the most critical aspect of engineering design
With regards to buildings, the interest of the firefighter is necessarily focused on the____
Way a building reacts when it is involved in a fire.
If a building is to be located in a region where it will be subjected to hurricanes, the force of hurricane wins must be determined so that…
Adequate roof anchoring can be designed
It is necessary to understand the _____ of the loads exerted on a building before they can be evaluated.
Nature
Any effect that the structure must be designed to resist.
Load
*Forces of loads, such as gravity, wind, earthquakes, and soil pressure, our exerted on a building
Loads arise from several sources such as:
Gravity
Wind
Earthquakes
Soil pressure
_____ Creates a force on a building through the weight of the building components and all of its contents.
Gravity
*in addition, gravity can exert a force (added weight) if snow, ice, and water accumulate on the roof or water accumulates inside the building due to flooding.
Force acting to draw an object toward the earth’s center; force is equal to the objects weight
Gravity
What are the benefits to having a firewall?
Greatly reduces potential economic loss and can enable a stricken industry to recover more quickly
Why are firewalls not popular with designers?
-Because they increase structural costs and may interfere with the free movement of materials through a factory or warehouse
They can also be architecturally unattractive and occupancies such as shopping malls or airline passenger terminal where an expansive interior is desired.
How many developers circumvent requirements for firewalls?
By resorting to freestanding structures, like single family residences, that are separated but built very close to one another
-some single-family homes can be as close as 18 inches apart
When do building codes allow elimination of firewalls?
- When a building is equipped with an automatic sprinkler system and meets criteria for occupancy, height, and other code requirements
- it is not unusual, therefore, to find very large industrial, warehouse, and mercantile facilities constructed without firewalls
What is a freestanding firewall?
- Freestanding walls are self-supporting and are independent of the building frame.
- Freestanding firewalls are usually found in buildings of wood- frame or wood joist and masonry (type III or IV construction, although they may also be used in noncombustible buildings.
- Freestanding walls must be designed to resist and lateral load of at least 5 pounds per square foot and are self-supporting with respect to vertical it.
- They are independent of the building frame although the building frame may provide some horizontal support
What is a tied firewall?
Erected at a column line in a building of steel frame or concrete frame construction.
In a steel frame building, any steel members, such as columns, that may be incorporated into the firewall must be provided with the same degree of fire resistance required for the firewall itself.
Fire resistance rating of firewalls
- Originally firewalls were required to have a fire resistance rating of 4 hours, but recent building current permit firewalls with fire resistive rating of two, three, or four hours, depending on the occupancy. A 4hour rated firewall usually must be constructed of masonry or concrete and have 3 hour rated openings.
- In most buildings firewalls must be constructed of noncombustible materials
How far must firewalls extend?
-Firewalls must extend extend beyond walls and roofs to prevent the radiant heat of flames on one side of a firewall from igniting adjacent surfaces.
-This is accomplished by continuing the firewall through the roof with a parapet.
-The parapets height above a combustible roof is determined by the building code and varies from 18 to 36 inches
Some buildings contain exceptions that permit the illumination of parapets under certain conditions.
What is a fire partition?
Interior walls used to subdivide a floor or area of a building and do not qualify as firewalls.
- Fire partitions may not extend continuously throughout the building.
- A partition is usually a erected from a floor to the underside of the floor above.
- Fire partitions are typically not required to have as much fire resistance as a firewall.
What materials are fire partitions constructed of?
- Wide variety of materials including lath and plaster, gypsum wallboard, concrete block, and combinations of materials.
- The material chosen depends on the required fire resistance and construction type of the building.
A partition wall separating adjacent units in an apartment building may be required to have a fire resistance of
One hour
A common method to accomplish the one hour partition fire rating in a fire resistive structure is to
use 5/8 of an inch fire rated gypsum wallboard applied to both sides of 2 1/2 inch steel studs
How can you achieve the one hour fire resistance for partition and type III or type V building construction using wood studs
If the 5/8 inch gypsum wallboard were applied to both sides of a 2 x 4” wood studs
When is fire rated glazing used?
For partitions where visibility is desired and a fire rating is required.
What is and enclosure wall?
Used to enclose such vertical openings at stairwells, elevator shafts, and pipe chases that extend from floor to floor in a building.
The purpose of enclosed walls is to
block the vertical spread of fire through a building and, in the case of stairwells, to protect a means of egress.
What is the main difference between an enclosure wall and a fire partition?
The main difference between the two designations is their function
Fire resistance rating enclosure walls?
One or two hours depending on the height of the building.
- Stairwells in buildings three stories or less are required to have a 1hour enclosure
- In buildings taller than three stories, they are required to have 2 hour enclosures
What is glazing?
- Glass or Thermo plastic panel in a window that allows light to pass.
- The use of fire rated glazing provides a fire barrier while permitting observation of the stair enclosure, which can enhance security
What are light shafts?
- Windows from interior rooms would open into a light shaft to facilitate ventilation.
- Light shafts could be provided in an individual building but were frequently provided between adjacent buildings.
- Designed to let in natural light
Problems with firefighting in structures with light shafts?
- Like other vertical shafts, they can serve as an avenue for the spread of fire
- provide a means of vertical communication of fire from window to window
What is a curtain wall?
- Non-bearing exterior wall attached to the outside of the building with a rigid steel frame.
- Usually the front exterior wall of the building intended to provide a certain appearance
What is the design function of the curtainwall?
- Is to separate the interior environment from the exterior environment.
- To that extent, the curtainwall must resist wind, rain, and snow. -Curtainwalls must also be designed to control heat loss, noise transmission, and solar radiation
How did the curtainwall come into existence?
- With the development of the steel framed high-rise building.
- Because the main structural support was provided by the frame, the extra wall did not need to be loadbearing.
What are curtainwalls most often constructed of?
- Combination of glass and steel, stainless steel, or aluminum
- Can also be constructed with lightweight concrete, plastic, fiberglass, and a variety of metal panels with core materials such as expanded paper honeycombs and compressed glass fiber
Two aspects of curtainwalls that are significant to firefighters
Their degree of fire resistance and extent to which they permit vertical communication of fire
Fire resistance curtain wall
Because a curtain wall is non-loadbearing, it lacks the inherent fire assistance provided by a more massive load bearing wall.
- Some curtain wall assemblies, such as those made of aluminum and glass, have no fire assistance.
- Nonetheless, building codes may require the exterior walls – including curtain walls have some degree of fire assistance to reduce the communication of fire between buildings
What is a fire door?
A specially constructed, tested, and approved fire rated door assembly designed and installed to prevent fire spread by automatically closing and covering a doorway in a firewall during a fire to block the spread of fire through the door opening
The most common means for protecting openings through fire rated walls is by the use of
Fire doors
How do fire doors different from ordinary doors?
In their construction, their hardware, and the extent to which they may be required to close automatically
Fire door rating
A fire door is rated for its fire assistance in a manner somewhat similar to that used for fire system of structural assemblies. Fire doors are rated as 4 hours, 3 hours, 1.5 hours, 1 hour, 3/4 of an hour, 1/2 hour, and 20 minutes
Letter designation used to classify fire doors
Were meant to describe the type of opening for which a door wasn’t tendon, but historically the letters have been used to describe the door itself
There are five classes A, B, C, D, and E
Class A fire door opening
Openings in firewalls
Class B fire door openings
Openings in vertical shafts and openings in two hour rated partitions
Class C fire door openings
Openings between rooms and Corridors having a fire resistance of 1 hour or less
What is a class D fire door opening
Openings in exterior walls subject to severe exposure from the outside of the building
Class E fire door opening
Openings in the exterior wall subject to moderate or light exposure from the outside
Building codes typically require 4 or 3 hour rated doors in firewalls of greater than – – – hour rating
2
One phenomenon associated with earthquakes is_____. It occurs where the soil is of a loose, Sandy nature and is saturated with water.
Soil liquefication
*This action results in a reduction of the strength of the soil leading to shifting of foundations and serious structural damage.
The tendency of a body to remain in motion or at rest until it is acted upon by force.
Inertia
Although the movement of the ground beneath a building can be three dimensional, the_____motion is the most significant force
Horizontal
As the ground moves under a building,_____tends to keep the upper portion of the building momentarily in it’s initial position.
Inertia
If an earthquake generates additional ground motion, this motion can produce a_____motion in a building.
Swaying
*Low buildings are less susceptible to this type of motion then tall buildings.
Buildings with _____ are inherently more susceptible to damage from earthquakes than buildings having a symmetrical design.
Geo metric irregularities
Because the tall and short sections of a building have a different heights, their responses to the vibrations of the surface will be different. This difference in their responses can produce damaging forces at the junction of their two parts.to overcome this difference, a _____ can be designed into the structure between the two sections.
A seismic joint
The required width of the seismic joint increases based on the height of the building.
Maintaining the_____of seismic joints can be difficult and has been ruled as a main contributor of fire spread in the 1980 fire at the MGM grand in Las Vegas
Fire rating
In earthquakes, the severity of the force developed depends on the acceleration of the ground beneath the building, not necessarily the total movement. Building codes contain provisions for seismic design based on the:
Duration and magnitude of the ground acceleration for the geographic area in which the building is located.
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With earthquakes, some buildings are more critical than others and require stronger seismic bracing such as:
Large places of public assembly, large office buildings, schools, and institutions.
With earthquakes, buildings essential for community recovery after an earthquake that also must be designed for greater seismic loads include the following:
Fire and police stations
Hospitals
Communication centers
Emergency preparedness centers
Generating stations
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One method to protect buildings against the forces of earthquakes is to increase a buildings:
Stiffness through the use of shear walls and cross bracing
Buildings designed with_____are less likely to collapse if one member fails.
Redundant structural frames
A fire door may be found with a combination classification, such as a class B 1 1/2 hour rating. This designation means:
The door is intended to protect an opening in a vertical shaft(class B) and has a 1 1/2 hour rating
What is the criteria for acceptability (passing all required testing) for a fire door?
1) The primary criteria for accessibility is that the fire door must remain remain in place during the test. Some warping of the door is permitted as well as intermittent passage of flames after the first 30 minutes of the test. There is also no maximum surface rise on the unexposed side of the door for most of the doors tested. In fact, metal doors may actually glow red from the heat of the test fire. If an opening through a firewall is no longer needed for passage, the opening should be filled in with construction materials equivalent to the wall.
2) The second criterion for acceptability is that the fire door assembly must remain in place when subjected to a hose stream immediately following the fire test. The use of a hose stream subjects the door assembly to cooling and impact effects that might accompany firefighting. Doors with a 1/3 hour rating may not be subjected to the hose test depending on their intended application.
Underwriter laboratories Inc. publishes a list of fire doors that have passed the test and what directory?
Fire resistance directory
How do you identify fire rated doors?
- Fire rated doors are identified with a label indicating the Door type, hourly rating, and the identifiable label of the testing laboratory.
- The fire door labels facilitate the identification of fire doors by building and fire inspectors in the field.
- It is not uncommon for labels to be painted over during building maintenance and there also has been at least one case of counterfeit laboratory labels appearing in the field.
For a fire door to effectively block the spread of fire, it must remain closed and:
Attached to the firewall under fire conditions.
A fire door must be equipped with hardware that holds
The door closed under the stresses of fire exposure
When fire doors are installed in a frame, the frame must
Also withstand exposure to a fire
The testing of fire doors includes the frames as well as the
Hardware
The hardware used on fire doors is referred to as either
Builders hardware or fire door hardware
Builders hardware is applied to swinging doors and includes such items as:
Hinges, locks and latches, bolts, and closers
Fire door hardware is used on both – – – and – – –fire doors
Sliding and swinging fire doors
The vision panels enhance safety and security by permitting observation through
A closed door
Fire door glazing is often not provided by the door manufacture and may be installed at the job site by a
Glazing contractor
NFPA 80
Standard for fire doors and fire windows
NFPA 80 requires that each piece of glass installed in a fire door have a – – – – – – that is visible after installation. 2 words
Listing Mark
What is wired glass?
- A sheet of glass in which a steel wire net has been embedded.
- at one time the only fire rated glazing available was wired class
What is the purpose of the steel net in wired glass?
What happens to wired glass when exposed to fire?
wired glass will crack when exposed to a fire but will remain in place until it begins to soften and fall out
Recent changes to fire rated glazing
- In recent years fire rated glazing has been developed that does not rely on embedded steel wire.
- These products can provide higher hourly fire ratings than wired glass.
- They are somewhat more visually appealing to and can be used as windows or sidelights in fire rated walls as well as in fire doors.
- Some of the recent developed fire rated glazing is impact resistant so can also be used for security purposes
What are the restrictions on the allowable area of glass in fire doors?
-Fire doors with ratings of 1, 1 1/2, and 3 hours can have glass panels up to 100 in.² in area per door
-fire doors with ratings of 3/4 hour can have a total glass area consistent with their listing, but an individual piece cannot exceed 1296 in.².
Fire doors with the ratings of 1/2 or 3/4 hour can have fire rated glass up to the maximum area to which they were tested
Describe louvers in a fire door
- It is sometimes desirable to install louvers in a fire door to permit ventilation while the door is closed
- The louvers in a fire door must close in case of fire to protect the opening.
Usually, louvers are closed by means of
Fusible link
Which doors can have louvers?
- Louvers cannot be arbitrarily installed in fire doors.
- Only those fire doors that are listed for the installation of louvers can have louvers installed
What are the two ways that fire doors can be closed?
Automatic and self-closing
What is an automatic fire door?
Door normally held open and closes automatically under fire conditions when an operating device is activated
What is a self closing fire door?
Door that is normally closed and will return to the closed position if it is opened and released
Type of doors that fire door closers are used for
Swinging or sliding
The two devices that fire door closers use
It can incorporate a hold open device or can be self closing
-
A fire door closer that uses a hold open device, uses what device?
It incorporates a fusible link device that holds the door open and releases the door under fire conditions
Self closing doors are commonly used for what applications?
Stairwell doors and doors that separate hotel rooms from corridors.
One commonly used self closer uses a —– —— to close the door when released.
spring hinge
Types of fire doors that a door holder can be used with
Swinging, sliding, or rolling fire doors
The devices that operate fire doors include
Door closers, door holders, and door operators
A door holder is intended to be used with
A suitable door closer
Describe an electromagnetic door holder
- Can be used in conjunction with a smoke detector that releases the holder.
- This arrangement is very useful in areas with a large volume of traffic such as school stair enclosures. They are often used in healthcare occupancies where they can be released by operation of a fire alarm system
- Having fire doors held open prevents the practice of blocking the doors in an open position
What is a door operator?
Consists of an electric operator that opens and closes the door for normal use. A door operator is intended for use with sliding fire doors that are mounted on either a level or inclined track.
Under fire conditions, a fusible link disconnects the door from the operator and allows it to be closed by means of a spring powered door closer or a system of suspended weights
What are the advantages of using a fusible link in a door operator?
It is inexpensive, relatively rugged, and easy to maintain
What is a disadvantage of using a fusible link with a door operator
- A disadvantage is that it is slower to operate and devices that react to smoke or rise in the rate of temperature.
- A significant amount of smoke my flow through a door opening before a fusible link can release a door
What is an advantage of using a smoke detector as opposed to a fusible link with a door operator?
The door closes more quickly and also permits easy testing of the fire door.
Disadvantage of using smoke detector with a door operator
A smoke detector costs more and requires periodic cleaning. They also must be properly position with respect to dead air spaces or ventilation ducts
There are a number of types of fire doors designed for use in a particular setting. Among them are
Rolling doors, overhead doors, horizontal doors, as well as other types
Rolling steel fire doors are constructed of interlocking steel slats with other operating components including
A release device, governor, counterbalance mechanism, and wall guides
Where are rolling steel fire doors used in a building?
- And overhead rolling steel fire door is used to protect an opening in a firewall and an industrial occupancy.
- It is also frequently used at the opening in a wall separating buildings. -An overhead rolling steel fire door may be used on one or both sides of a wall opening.
What is one architectural advantage of an overhead rolling fire door?
It is relatively inconspicuous and out-of-the-way
How does and overhead rolling door ordinarily close?
Under the force of gravity when a fusible link melts but motor driven doors are also available
Dangerous conditions caused by overhead rolling doors
The overhead door may create a dangerous dead- end corridor when it closes.
- -Overhead doors can also create a dangerous condition for firefighters who may not be able to see the door installation through the heavy smoke.
- Firefighters advancing on a fire must use care when moving through an opening protected with overhead rolling fire doors to avoid being struck by a closing door.
- In addition, a door that closes after firefighters have passed through it can trap firefighters in the fire area, cutting off their escape path, restricting water through pinched hose lines, and this orienting members who do not realize that the door came down across the corridor behind them
Where are horizontal sliding doors normally found?
Older industrial buildings
How are horizontal sliding doors held open?
By a fusible link and slides into position along a track either by gravity or by the force of a counterweight
What type of materials is the normal horizontal sliding door constructed?
Metal – covered, wood – core door
Describe the wood- core door
- They wood core provides thermal insulation while the sheet metal covering protects the wood from the fire.
- Because wood undergoes thermal decomposition when exposed to heat, a vent hole is usually provided in the sheet-metal to prevent gases of decomposition
What type of metal is used to cover the wood core in the horizontal sliding door
Steel, galvanized sheet metal, and terneplate, which is a metal composed of tin and lead.
In horizontal sliding doors, smooth galvanized sheet metal is used on wood core doors known as
Kalamein doors
Horizontal sliding Fire doors made with galvanized steel or terneplate are commonly referred to as
Tin clad, although strictly speaking the metal used is not pure tin
Swinging fire doors are available with ratings of
3 hours to 20 minutes
Where are swinging fire doors often used?
Stairwell enclosures and corridors. Although a swinging fire door has the disadvantage of requiring a clear space around the door to ensure closure, it is a good choice where the door is frequently closed and provision must be made for pedestrian traffic
When is it necessary to use a vestibule between the doors that is a fire resistive construction?
Where it is necessary to provide a fire door on either side of a wall and the swinging doors are in and exit path so that they are required to swing in the direction of exit travel.
- A pair of fire doors may be installed to close off a corridor at a firewall, with one door swinging in each direction to accommodate exit travel in both directions
What are common facilities that make use of a vestibule between fire doors?
Some healthcare facilities, apartment buildings, and schools
Horizontal folding fire door operation
- This door is motor driven and requires electrical power for operation.
- A signal from a smoke detector or fire alarm system initiates the door closing.
- A battery powers the motor if the regular power supply is interrupted.
In what situation might a horizontal folding fire door be used?
This type of door is frequently used where a fire rated partition is required and the designer does not wish to provide a fixed wall to create an unobstructed floor plan.
What is a common reason for failure of fire doors in actual fires?
Failure of fire doors to close properly
What is a common reason for failure of fire doors to work properly?
Damage to the door closer, the door itself, or door guides
Proper fire door operation requires that the doors be
Properly maintained
Therefore, inspection, testing, and proper maintenance, are always important
What is the function of a foundation?
To transfer the structural load of a building to the ground
A structural element designed to control vibration.
Damping mechanism
Damping mechanisms are typically installed at:
The connections between columns and beams, they absorb energy as the structure begins to move
The basic concept of base isolation is to isolate the building from the:
Horizontal movement of the earth’s surface.
The following to isolation methods have been used:
Elastomeric bearings
Sliding systems
The force generated by soil pressure must be evaluated in the_____
Design process
The forces associated with soils are difficult to:
Determine accurately and may only be estimated
Soil exerts a horizontal pressure against a foundation. The magnitude of the pressure depends on:
- The type of soil
- It’s degree of cohesion
- It’s moisture content
The pressure exerted by the soil against the foundation is known as the:
Active soil pressure
The force of the foundation against the soil is known as the:
Passive soil pressure
In determining the force created by the active soil pressure, the soil is assumed to behave like a:
Fluid
The basic equation used to determine soil pressure is:
P=Cwh
P=pressure
H=depth of the soil
W=density of the soil
C=numerical constant that depends on the physical properties of the soil.
Firefighters frequently become involved in rescue operations because of_____or_____, so building foundation shifts have real life application.
Trench collapses or construction excavation accidents
In addition to the forces already discussed these three forces may also be exerted on a building:
- Temperature: as the temperature outside a building changes, the structural members at the periphery of the building expand and contract.
- vibration: vibration can arise from sources within a building such as rotating machinery.
- Shrinkage: shrinkage can occur in wood structural members as the lumbar dries overtime. This can result in tensile forces at connections between the members.
Weight of the structure, structural members, building components, and any other feature permanently attached to the building that is constant and immobile. Load on a structure due to its own weight and other fixed weights.
Dead load
The forces on a building resulting from gravity, which were described earlier, are classified into two types:
Dead loads and live loads
The weight of any permanent part of a building. This includes the weight of the buildings components such as roofs, floor slabs or decks, interior walls, stair systems, exterior walls, and columns it also includes permanent equipment such as heating plants, elevator hoist, pumps, and water supply tanks in earthquake zones.
Dead load
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Although dead loads usually remain the same, they can change, such as when:
An air-conditioning unit is installed on the roof of a building.
It can also increase over time when additional layers of roofing material are added in the course of resurfacing
Supports that shift or settle will alter the forces on structural members
- Above the foundation of the building
- In severe cases, the frame of a building maybe distorted, floors may slope, walls and glass make crack, and doors and windows may not work properly
Various types of surface materials are found throughout different regions of the world. They may range from – – – space – – – at one extreme to – – – – – – at the other
Loose sand at one extreme to solid granite and the other
Body of local law, adopted by states, counties, cities, or other governmental bodies to regulate the construction, renovation, and maintenance of building.
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Building Code
Although jurisdictions can write and adopt their own codes, they typically adopt all or a portion of a ______ package as their building and fire code.
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“model code”
Different types of soil may be found at different depths in a given location. Before planning of a building can proceed, civil engineers must determine the properties of the soil that lies beneath the site. This is done by taking a——- or by using——-
By digging a test pit or by using test borings
Test pits are usually used up to a depth of about
8 feet
The use of a test pit permits the – – – of the soil to be observed and measured
Strata
Some jurisdictions may adopt and use codes developed by the National Fire Protection Association (such as __________, and ___________ and _______ .
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NFPA® 1, Uniform Fire Code
NFPA® 5000, Building Construction
Safety Code
When using a test boring, what method is used to get information about the soil strata?
The number of impacts of a standard driving hammer, required to drive the boring tube a given distance provides information about the soil Strata
Line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped _____ or vegetative fuels.
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Wildland/Urban interface
wildland
What determines the type of foundation required for a project?
Depends on the type of building (structural configuration) and soil conditions at the site
A foundation must support the dead load of a building and live load of its contents. In addition, a foundation may need to be designed to resist what other forces
Wind loads that may apply lateral or uplifting forces to a building
– soil pressure
– uplifting forces from underground water
– thrusts resulting from the support of arches, domes, and vaults - seismic forces
The main factors that determine the type of foundation to be used for a building are the soil conditions and the structural configuration. Other factors include:
– The working space available
– Environmental factors
– Impact on adjacent property
– Building codes and regulations
Foundations are divided into two types:
Shallow and deep
A—–foundation transfers the weight of the building to the soil at the base of the building
- Shallow
- A shallow foundation can be used where the loadbearing ability of the soil directly under the building is adequate to support the building
The actual construction process requires ____ and ______.
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coordination and scheduling
One method of managing a construction project is a technique known as _____
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“fast tracking”
What is a footing?
That part of the building that rests on the bearing soil and is wider than the foundation wall
Wall footings can take several forms, such as:
– Increased thickness of a floor slab at its edges (known as a monolithic floor); aka reinforced slab
-A widened strip of concrete under a wall that supports a raised floor with a crawl space; aka craw space
A widened strip of concrete under full story high walls that create a full or partial basement; aka basement
Is a square pad of concrete that supports a column
Column footing
Type of footing that consists of layers of beams placed at right angles to each other that are usually encased in concrete
- Grillage footing; is used when a column footing is supporting a large load
- The beams that make up the grillage footing distribute the load of the column over the area of the footing
There are several ways tactical firefighters can develop knowledge of building construction in their jurisdiction:
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One way is to obtain information through the building permit process.(This method is particularly useful in the case of large structures such as hospitals, shopping malls, exhibition halls, and high-rise buildings)
A second means of developing knowledge of building construction is through pre-incident (pre-fire) planning.
Geographic information systems (GIS) are another means of obtaining, analyzing, and using data based on location.
Pre-incident plans include information regarding
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occupancy, industrial process, hazardous materials, fire protection systems, building access, and utilities.
— Act of preparing to handle an incident at a particular location or a particular type of incident before an incident occurs.
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Pre-incident Planning
Also called Pre-fire Planning, Preplanning, Pre-fire Inspection, or Pre-incident Inspection
Fundamental to the pre-incident planning process is information about a building’s construction. This includes the
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construction type (i.e., wood frame, fire-resistive), location of fire walls, vertical openings, roof construction, exits, and any smoke control systems that may be provided.
A floating foundation is the same as a mat foundation except
The floating foundation is located beneath a building at a depth such that the weight of the soil removed is equal to the weight of the building
Inspection of the construction takes place ______ and _________ of a project. Inspections are performed by the ____________ and by the building department.
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during and upon completion
architect or the architect’s representative
As construction nears completion, the _______ makes a final inspection.
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architect
In _____, the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law in the US.
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1990
The following impairments qualify as disabilities under the Act: (ADA)
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(My Nuts Have Very Little Sperm)
- Vision impairments • Hearing impairments • Learning
* Speech • Neuromuscular impairments • Mental illness
The use of timber for piles is limited by what several factors?
The possibility of decay and the length of available trees from which timbers are cut
What are piles?
Used to support loads, piles are driven into the ground and develop their load carrying ability either through friction with the surrounding soil, or by being driven into contact with rock or a load bearing soil layer
What are Piers?
Load supporting member constructed by drilling or digging a shaft, then filling the shaft with concrete
2 examples of an Area of refuge is:
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(1) Area where persons who are unable to use stairs can temporarily wait for instructions or assistance during an emergency building evacuation.
(2) Space in the normal means of egress protected from fire by an approved sprinkler system, by means of separation from other spaces within the same building by smoke proof walls, or by virtue of location in an adjacent building.
Where required, the areas of refuge must be equipped with __________ so individuals can call for assistance.
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two-way communication
Foundation design issue sloping ground
And unusual problem arises when a building is to be built on sloping ground. This situation often occurs with beachfront property or property located on the side of the canyon or steep slope. As the slope of the ground increases, the foundation design becomes more critical. When the ground slopes angle is severe, piles or piers are placed in more dense lower soils.These deep elements act as a vertical cantilevers to resist the lateral force exerted by the building. The vertical elements are connected with a tie beam
Concerns with energy efficiency, for example, result in buildings with dual-pane windows and tighter fitting doors and seals. These affect the speed with which firefighters can _____ a ______and the ______ of _____ within a building.
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ventilate a building
rate of combustion
These _____ ______ affect building design in such fundamental matters as building height and in determining whether or not a basement is practical.
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soil properties
Indications of a shift in the foundation wall?
- Any vertical or horizontal misalignment along the length of a crack in the foundation wall indicates a movement or shift in the structure
- When a structure is inspected for stability, any change in size or extension of cracks or fissures should be given close attention
What is the significance if there is a shift in the structure?
It may mean a change in the imposition of loads on structural members
Besides concrete, what other materials can foundation walls be constructed with?
Concrete block, stone, or brick
If wood is to be used for foundation walls, what must it be treated with?
Preservatives to resist decay
What type of buildings are wood foundations used with
Wood foundations are used with wood frame buildings
The overall design of a building, as well as the individual details, is determined by
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available funds
What are the advantages of expanded polystyrene(EPS)
The expanded polystyrene conserves he in cold climates and reduces the energy needed for air-conditioning in warm climates. The use of EPS also permits foundations to be dug to shallower depths resulting in a cost savings. This is due to the fact that the reduced heat transfer through the EPS to the surrounding soil results in a frost line that is closer to the surface
After buildings are constructed, they will move either because of
Various unforeseen factors or as a result of construction defects
What are the three types of movements that a building can suffer?
Downward as in the case of settlement, upward as in the case of heaving, or outward as in the case of lateral displacement
What is the most frequent type of building movement?
Settlement- downward movement
What are the two types of Settlement foundations
Uniform or differential
What is uniform settlement?
Parts of a foundation settle at the same rate and misalignment between structural members is minor
What is differential settlement?
Takes place when different parts of the foundation settle by different amounts and is more troublesome than uniform settlement, because it can result in significant misalignment of structural members
Differential settlement of a foundation can result from what several conditions?
-Non-uniform soil conditions under the foundation
– Footings a different size
– Footings placed a different elevations
– Unequal loads on footings
Process of strengthening an existing foundation and refers to permanent supports
Underpinning
The need for underpinning can result from what several causes
-Excessive settlement because of an in adequate foundation
- An increase in the load on a foundation because of the construction of additional stories
– Erosion of soil from under or around the foundation
What is shoring?
- General term used for lengths of timber, screw jacks, hydraulic and pneumatic jacks, and other devices that can be used as temporary support for formwork or structural components or used to hold sheeting against trench walls.
- Individual supports are called Shores, cross braces, and struts
- shoring an existing structure is frequently necessary to support the structure until underpinning can be put into place
Why is the placement of shoring and underpinning difficult and dangerous?
It frequently involves excavation by hand because it may not be possible to position power equipment when the work is done in limited spaces such as basements. If a collapse occurs in connection with this work, the fire department typically is called upon to conduct a rescue operation. Such rescue operations always require extreme caution and coordination
Group of people, usually five to seven, with experience in fire prevention, building construction, and/or
code enforcement legally constituted to arbitrate differences of opinion between fire inspectors and building officials, property owners, occupants or builders
Ch.1
Board of Appeals
A building permit is obtained from the local
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building department
________ is such an important concern to an architect that it frequently clashes with fire safety concerns.
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Aesthetics
the possibility of communication of fire should always be included in _____ _____.
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pre-incident planning.
Currently the most widely used model building code in the US is the _______ published by the ____________.
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International Building Code (IBC)
International Code Council Incorporated
The International Building Code is the successor to three earlier model codes:
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- The Uniform Building Code (UBC) published by the International Council of Building Officials (ICBO).
- The Standard Building Code published by the Southern Building Code Congress International.
- The BOCA National Building Code published by the Building Officials and Code Administrators International.
The International Building Code has a companion fire code, the ________.
Both the fire and building codes must be used together during ___________.
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International Fire Code
facility design
Some jurisdictions may adopt and use codes developed by the National Fire Protection Association (such as __________, and ___________ and _______ .
NFPA® 1, Uniform Fire Code
NFPA® 5000, Building Construction
Safety Code
Distance from the street line to the front of a building
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Setback
Line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels.
Wildland/Urban interface
In the wildland/urban interface, fire communication to exposures can be from:
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shake (wood) roofs, open vents, exterior sidings, and vegetation
Transfer of heat by the movement of heated fluids or gases, usually in an upward direction.
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Convection
The desire to renovate older buildings in some urban areas can result in unique efforts at change of occupancy. A few typical examples include:
• A church converted into _____
• A storm window manufacturing plant into a _______
• Parking facility converted to a ______
• Two-story factory converted to a
• Multistory industrial buildings converted to _____
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condominiums community theater flea market shopping mall condominiums with parking
Branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste.
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Aesthetics
Without oversight by a building department, buildings can be weakened if work is performed without regard to proper methods. Examples of these structural problems include the following:
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- Removal or penetration of bearing walls • Modification of beams or trusses • Structural overloading of roofs • Creation of mezzanine floors in attic spaces • Rooftop additions
- Remodeling that creates additional voids, such as suspended ceilings
- Illegal remodeling or overloading that poses extreme hazards
The actual construction process requires ____ and ______.
coordination and scheduling
In a fast-track project, the _____ and _______phases overlap
design and construction
A commonly adopted NFPA® code is
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the Life Safety Code (NFPA® 101)
Specific fire safety provisions include requirements for the following elements:
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- Structural fire resistance
- Flammability of interior finishes
- Adequacy of means of egress
- Enclosure of vertical openings
- Fire protection systems
- Exposure protection
- Occupancy separation
Occupant safety must also be considered in the following areas:
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- Design of stairs and walking surfaces
- Balcony railings
- Overhead obstacles
- Electrical wiring
- Elevator operation
There are several ways tactical firefighters can develop knowledge of building construction in their jurisdiction:
ch1
One way is to obtain information through the building permit process.
Preincident plans include information regarding
ch1
occupancy, industrial process, hazardous materials, fire protection systems, building access, and utilities.
— Act of preparing to handle an incident at a particular location or a particular type of incident before an incident occurs.
ch1
Preincident Planning
Also called Prefire Planning, Preplanning, Prefire Inspection, or Preincident Inspection
Fundamental to the preincident planning process is information about a building’s construction. This includes the
ch1
construction type (i.e., wood frame, fire-resistive), location of fire walls, vertical openings, roof construction, exits, and any smoke control systems that may be provided.
Building built without a tenant or occupant
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Spec Building — (short for speculation).
Inspection of the construction takes place ______ and _________ of a project. Inspections are performed by the ____________ and by the building department
during and upon completion
architect or the architect’s representative
In _____, the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law in the US.
1990
The following impairments qualify as disabilities under the Act: (ADA)
ch1
My Nuts Have Very Little Sperm
- Vision impairments • Hearing impairments • Learning
* Speech • Neuromuscular impairments • Mental illness
Some of the specific building elements that must be designed to accommodate individuals with restricted abilities include the following:
CH1
• Building entrances • Parking and passenger loading zones • Elevators
*Drinking fountains • Toilet facilities
• Alarms (visible and/or audible) • Telephones • Automated teller machines • Means of egress
Manual fire alarm stations must be not more than __ feet and not less than ____ feet above the floor level so they can be reached from a wheelchair.
ch1
41⁄2
31⁄2
People who are unable to use the stairs for emergency evacuation must be provided with alternate protection such as an _____ of _____.
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area of refuge
Term used to describe the incorporation of such environmental principles as energy efficiency and environmentally friendly building materials into design and construction.
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Green Design
Concerns with energy efficiency, for example, result in buildings with dual-pane windows and tighter fitting doors and seals. These affect the speed with which firefighters can _____ a ______and the ______ of _____ within a building.
ventilate a building
rate of combustion
These _____ ______ affect building design in such fundamental matters as building height and in determining whether or not a basement is practical
soil properties
The transmission or transfer of heat energy from one body to another body at a lower temperature through intervening space by electromagnetic waves.
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thermal radiation
________ communication of fire is mainly due to thermal radiation.
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Horizontal
Fire spread is often the result of ____ ____.
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radiant heat
In earlier times, the appearance of a building was determined by the ____ _____ in its construction.
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materials used
When a decision is made to design and construct a building, the designer has many factors to consider in reaching a satisfactory result. These include the following:
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- Fiscal resources (cost) • Building use • Aesthetic tastes • Building codes
- Safety • Accessibility
- Climate • Infrastructure • Soil conditions • The physical laws of engineering • The owner’s needs and desires
The ______ usually functions as the prime designer who has the responsibility and control to choose major aspects of the building and to eliminate alternatives.
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architect
The erection of buildings involves several branches of engineering and all of the building trades. In addition to architecture, the major technical specialties and their functions include the following:
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Civil engineering, Structural engineering, Mechanical engineering, Electrical engineering, Fire protection engineering
• Civil engineering
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— Water supply — Sanitary sewers — Surveying— Site preparation and excavation
— Roadways — Storm water drainage
• Mechanical engineering
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— Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning — Pumping systems — Elevators — Plumbing systems
• Structural engineering
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— Determination of loads — Foundation design — Structural behavior
— Structural members
— Structural erection
• Electrical engineering
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— Lighting — Power — Communications
• Fire protection engineering
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— Automatic sprinklers — Standpipes — Fire alarm — Smoke control — Code compliance
The finishing touch in the design process is
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landscaping
Testing is performed on certain materials, systems, and components such as ____, _____ and _____ ____. The _____ ___ is usually involved in the testing of the fire protection systems in new construction.
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concrete, fire pumps, and emergency generators
fire department
The primary role of the ___ _____is to ensure proper installation and operation of the fire protection systems
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fire inspector
The actual system tests are carried out by representatives of the _____ _____.
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installing contractor
______ ______ alone is not the only factor in determining if a fire can communicate to an exposed building. The area, namely the _____ and ______, of the exposing flame is also a factor.
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Flame temperature
height and width
Flames emitting from a window in a masonry wall can expose an adjacent building. As the area of the opening increases in size, the amount of ____ ______increases
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thermal radiation
NFPA ___ Recommended Practice for Protection from Exterior Fire Exposure, describes three levels of exposure based on the potential severity of the exposing fire. The standard classifies the levels of exposure as
80A
light, moderate, or severe
There are a number of methods used to protect buildings from exposing fires, including the following:
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• Clear space between buildings • Fire suppression systems such as water-based sprinkler systems and fire-
retardant distribution systems • Blank walls of noncombustible construction • Self-supporting barrier walls between the fire building and the exposure • Parapets on exterior masonry walls • Automatic outside deluge systems • Elimination of openings in exterior walls • Glass block panels in openings • Wired glass in steel sash windows • Automatic fire shutters or dampers on wall openings • Automatic fire doors on door openings
the possibility of communication of fire should always be included in _____ _____.
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preincident planning.
In engineering, _____ is said to occur when a structure or part “is no longer capable of performing its required function in a satisfactory manner.” Depending on what a structure is designed for, failure could mean:
failure
excessive vibration, deflection, noise, or wear.
Potential sources of building failure under fire conditions can include some or all of the following:
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• Structural integrity • Building systems • Design deficiencies
The collapse of a building under fire conditions is a result of the loss of a building’s _____ _______
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structural integrity
_____ ______materials possess the ability to maintain structural integrity
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Fire-resistive
Specific building systems include heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); _____ __; communications; _____; and transportation such as _____ and ____.
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electrical power
plumbing
elevators and conveyors
The term ____ ____ in this text refers to a failure to provide a level of fire safety appropriate to the ultimate use of the building.
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design deficiencies
One very basic aspect of building safety is the provision of an adequate number of ____. This number is determined by the number of persons likely to occupy a building, subject to building code provisions for occupancy classifications.
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exits
A building’s _____ must facilitate its end use.
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design
The desire to renovate older buildings in some urban areas can result in unique efforts at change of occupancy. A few typical examples include:
• A church converted into _____
• A storm window manufacturing plant into a _______
• Parking facility converted to a ______
• Two-story factory converted to a
• Multistory industrial buildings converted to _____
ch1
condominiums community theater flea market shopping mall condominiums with parking
Branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste.
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Aesthetics
Aesthetics is such an important concern to an architect that it frequently clashes with fire ____ _____.
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safety concerns
If the existing water mains cannot supply the required flow, it would be necessary to either ____ ____ __ of the mains or provide for ___ _____and fire pumps.
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increase the size
on-site storage
If ____ ____ ____ are not readily accessible, a well and storage tank may be necessary.
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public water mains
The final building design always involves a balance of :
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what is desired, what is needed, and what is practical
Minor renovations such as adding an _____ ______ also need to be performed by licensed contractors.
electrical receptacle
Any load that is not fixed or permanent. Can include wind and seismic loads, the term is usually applied to building contents, occupants, and the weight of snow or rain on the roof.
Live load
*Another definition is: force placed upon a structure by the addition of people, objects, or whether.
A load that is applied at one point or over a small area
Concentrated load
Building codes require that a specified_____be used in the structural analysis when it creates greater load effects than the uniform load.
Minimum concentrated load
The load exerted on a roof from the weight of snow is known as the:
Snow load
Can vary from virtually none in the southern states to 60 pounds per square foot in some areas such as northern Michigan. The amount of snow that accumulates on the roof also depends on the slope or shape of the roof and the effect of adjacent structures.
_____Roofs are especially vulnerable to the accumulated weight of snow.
Poorly maintained
_____Is used as a starting point in calculating the snow load on a roof.
The snow load expected on the ground
Frequently, the snow load calculated for a roof may be on the order of:
20 or 30 pounds per square foot
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Water from firefighting operations can add an additional:
Live load
Most of the water will drain from upper floors by way of elevator shafts and stairwells
In addition to their origin, the loads applied two buildings may be classified as:
Static or dynamic
Static load-loads that are steady, motionless, constant, or applied gradually. The dead load of the building, the snow load, and many live loads are static loads.
dynamic load-loads that involve motion. they include the forces arising from wind, moving vehicles, earthquakes, vibration, falling objects, as well as the addition of a moving load force to an aerial device or structure, also called shock loading.
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Dynamic loads different from static loads in that they are capable of:
Delivering energy to a structure in addition to the weight of an object.
The basic equation for kinetic energy is:
E=1/2 mv2
Dynamic loads have the ability to cause failure after
Repeated cycles
An example of this is the deterioration of a garage floor because of the repeated impact loads created by the movement of heavy vehicles.
When the support provided by a structural system is equal to the applied loads, a condition known as_____exists:
Equilibrium
A building collapses or partially collapses when the applied loads exceed the ability of the structural system to support them. The collapse represents a loss of equilibrium. In a sense, when the building becomes a pile of debris on the ground, equilibrium is reestablished.
The forces that resist the applied loads are known as:
Reactions
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The loads and forces applied to a structural member create_____within the member.
Internal forces
Proper design requires an evaluation of the internal forces to prevent failure in the form of cracking, crumbling, bending, or breaking.
A beam that is supported at one end is known as a:
Cantilever beam
Another definition is: projecting beam or slab supported at one end.
In addition to the vertical force, the support bracket must also resist a bending force. This bending force is known as a_____and is equal to the force multiplied by the distance at which the_____is applied.
Bending moment
That is the answer for both blanks
Page 87
Exterior loads can create different kinds of interior forces in materials. The interior forces are classified according to the direction in which they occur in the material. There are three of them:
Tension, compression, shear
Tension-tends to pull the material apart
Compression-tends to squeeze the material
Shear-tends to slide one plane of a material past an adjacent plane
Those vertical or horizontal forces that tend to pull things apart; for example, the force exerted on the bottom cord of a truss.
Tension
A material such as concrete has good compressive strength but little_____strength.
Tensile strength
A measurement of force intensity and is expressed as force units divided by the area over which the force is applied:
Stress
Page 87
The magnitude of the interior forces that occur in structural members is evaluated by a quantity known as:
Stress
Loads are classified according to the:
Direction in which they occur in the material.
Page 88
Point at which material ceases to perform satisfactorily. Depending on the application this can be breaking, permanent Deformation, excessive deflection, or vibration.
Failure point
Because many factors used in design cannot be known precisely, a_____is used. They provide for variations in the properties of the construction materials, the workmanship, and the live and dead loads.
Factor of safety
A factor of safety is the ratio of the failure point of the material to the maximum design stress
Page 88
Exterior loads can be classified as ____,____, or____ according to the manner in which they are applied.
Axial, eccentric, or torsional
Axial load-load applied to the center of the cross-section of a member and perpendicular to that cross-section. It can be either tensile or compressive and creates uniform stresses across the cross-section of the material.
Eccentric load-is a load that is perpendicular to the cross-section of the structural member but does not pass through the center of the cross-section. An eccentric load create stresses that vary across the cross-section and maybe both tensile and compressive.
Torsional load-is offset from the center of the cross-section of the structural member and at an angle to or in the same plane as the cross-section. A torsional load produces a twisting effect that creates shear stresses in a material.
Under fire conditions, loads can change because of the_____released by the fire.
Thermal energy
Firefighters must understand that structures and individual structural members are designed to support specific loads
Page 89
Compression forces cause a_____effect:
Squeeze
Axial loads are applied along the members axis. Eccentric loads are applied to one side of the cross-section, creating a bending tendency. Torsional loads are applied at an angle to the cross-section creating a twisting tendency.
There is no answer for this note card. It was just a tidbit of info
Structural members can expand, SAG, twist, or simply Burn away. As the structural components become distorted, the loads with in a building can shift and exert additional forces on adjacent members. Loads that were originally axial can become either eccentric or torsional. These shifting loads increase:
The probability of failure
Page 90
Larger structural systems can be constructed from several basic components. Including some of the following: there are seven of them
Beams
Columns
Arches
Cables
Trusses
Spaceframes
Connectors
Structural member subjected to loads, usually vertical, perpendicular to its length.
Beam
Another definition: a beam is a structural member that can carry loads perpendicular to it’s a longitudinal dimension.
A beam that is supported at each end and is free to rotate at the ends.
Simply supported beam
A wood joist resting on a masonry wall is an example of a simply supported beam.
A beam that is supported at one end:
Cantilever beam
These beams are often used to support balconies
Beams can also be continuous across several supports or restrained at both ends. Restrained beams are rigidly supported at each end. Under fire conditions, a rigidly supported beam will tend to:
Retain its load bearing ability longer than a simply supported beam.
Page 90
Beams can be made of:
Wood, steel, or reinforced concrete
The primary design consideration of beams is their ability to:
Resist bending from the applied the loads
In a beam the maximum tension or compression stresses are in the:
At the middle of the beam, a point known as the_____, the tension and compression stresses are actually zero.
Top and bottom. The top is under compression and the bottom is under tension.
Neutral axis
The top and bottom portions of the beam do most of the work resisting the bending movement.
Page 92
Some of the material can be removed from the middle of the beam cross-section without greatly affecting:
The strength of the beam
This increases the fishing use of material and reduces the weight of the beam. It is this engineering principle that results in many beams being constructed in the shape of the letter I.
In an I-beam, the top and bottom portions of the beam are known as the top and bottom:
Flanges
Because the top and bottom flanges of an I-beam support most of the load, any alteration of the flanges, such as cutting the top flange of a wooden I-beam, can have the effect of greatly reducing its strength.
Page 92
Tall beams are capable of supporting greater loads and short beams, even if they have the same:
Cross-sectional area
Structural members designed to support an axial compressive load. They are not primarily designed to withstand stresses due to bending.
Columns
The stresses created within a column are primarily compressive
Another definition: vertical supporting beam
Columns can be made of: there are five of them
Wood, steel, cast-iron, concrete, or masonry
In cases of failure, tall, thin columns fail by buckling and short, squatty columns fail by crushing.
Page 93
A curved structural member in which the interior stresses are primarily compressive. They produce inclined forces at their end supports, which the supports must resist.
Arches
Arches are used to carry loads _______, and have application as support for roofs and entrances in masonry buildings.
Across a distance
Vertical loads applied to an arch create inclined reactions at there:
Supports
If the end supports of an arch are removed, the arch becomes unstable
To provide for minor adjustments, arches are sometimes designed with:
Hinges
Arches can be constructed of: there are four of them
Masonry
Steel
Concrete
Laminated wood
Can be thought of as flexible structural members that can be used to support roofs, brace tents, and restrain pneumatic structures.
Cables
Although cables can be used in applications where they are a sensually Street, a cable used to support loads over a distance will assume the shape of a para bola.
The stresses and cables are:
Cables are usually made of:
Tension stresses
Steel strands, although aluminum may be used where weight is a critical factor
Structural member used to form a roof or floor framework. They form triangles or combinations of triangles to provide maximum load bearing capacity with a minimum amount of material; often rendered dangerous by exposure to intense heat, which weakens gusset plate attachment.
Trusses
Only compressive or tensile stresses will affect the members of the trusts
Another definition: framed structural units made up of a group of triangles in one plane.
A true truss is made only of:
Straight members
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Some types of roof trusses, such as the bowstring truss, have a:
Curved top chord
These curved members are unavoidably subjected to bending forces
The_____of an arch roof allows the roof to make minor adjustments while bending.
Hinge
When a cable is used to support loads, it will assume the shape of a:
Parabola
Pg95
The top members of a truss are called:
The bottom members of a truss are called:
The diagonal members of a truss are called:
Top cords
Bottom chords
Diagonals or web members
The joints may be formed by pin connections, welding, gusset plates, strap connectors, or structural adhesive.
Trusses may be made of:
Would
Steel
A combination of wood and steel
Geometrically speaking, the triangle provides an:
Inherently rigid frame
Names of common roof trusses:
King post, inverted king post, inverted queen post, howe, Pratt, fink, camebered fink, scissors, hammer beam trus, Warren truss, saw tooth, bowstring, K truss, truss with monitor
Typical truss shapes are available to span distances of____to____.
22 to 70 feet
But in today’s construction truss spans in excess of 100 feet or not uncommon
Trusses are a commonly used:
Most trusses are:
Structural member
Pre-fabricated
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Trusses also have the advantage of being able to span an equal distance using less material and:
Being lighter than a comparable beam
Lightweight wood or metal trusses, known as_____, have become very common in floor construction, taking the place of solid joists.
Truss joists
Lightweight wood trusses are also commonly used in roof construction.
From the firefighting standpoint, trusses have the potential for:
Early failure under adverse conditions.
This is due to the fact that failure of any portion of the top or bottom chords result in a failure of the truss. Lightweight steel trusses, known as bar joists, are also used for floor and roof construction and fire resistive and noncombustible construction.
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What kind of trusses are especially prone to failure?
Lightweight trusses
Roof trusses that are even lighter in weight than steel bar joists are available. In effect, these trusses are made of:
Galvanized steel studs or channels similar to them, and assembled with self drilling screws.
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Truss structures that are developed in three dimensions:
Space frames
Space frames are well-suited to support uniformly distributed loads
Would truss members can be connected by pins or bolts, gusset plates, adhesives, brackets, and metal straps. The members of steel trusses can be joined using:
Steel gusset plates
Rivets
Or welds
The____in truss assemblies are a critical part of the truss.
Connectors
Failure of a connector will result in failure of the truss. Quality control and manufacture of trusses can affect the behavior of trusses under fire conditions.
An almost infinite number of structural designs can be created. As with building types,____and____result in a number of commonly encountered structural systems.
Practical necessity
Economics
Wall that supports its self and the weight of the roof and or other internal structural framing components such as the floor beams above it.
Bearing wall
A common method of construction uses the walls of the building to support spanning elements such as: there are three of them
Beams
Trusses
Precast concrete slabs
These are appropriately known as bearing wall structures.
The bearing walls are usually the____walls with interior support system consisting of columns and beams.
Exterior walls
However, it is possible to use interior walls for structural support.
Bearing walls provide____support to the structure along the direction of the wall.
Lateral
And a bearing wall structure, the walls are subjected to _____ loads.
Compressive
The walls may be continuous or they may be interrupted for door and window openings.
Materials used for bearing walls include: there are four of them
Concrete masonry units
Bricks
Stone
Concrete panels
A log cabin is an example of the use of solid wood for a bearing wall
In a frame structure, structural support is provided in a manner similar to the way the:
Skeleton supports the human body
The walls act as the skin to enclose the frame. The walls may also provide lateral stiffness but provide no structural support
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In addition to the framing associated with wood construction, other types of structural frame construction include the following: there are five of them
Steel stud wall framing
Post and beam construction
Rigid frames
Slab and column frames
Truss frames
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Steel stud wall construction uses relatively closely spaced __________________ connected by top and bottom horizontal members.
Vertical steel studs
Historically, stud wall frame construction has been associated with the use of 2 x 4” wood studs although the use of steel studs has become more common in recent years
When the exterior and interior of a stud wall are covered with paneling or sheathing a_____results.
Rigid wall panel
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Post and beam construction uses a series of vertical elements (the posts) to support the horizontal elements (the beams) that are subject to:
Transverse loads
The distinctive characteristic of post and beam framing is the spacing of the vertical posts in the cross-sectional dimension of the members. The vertical posts maybe spaced up to____inches apart, unlike stud wall construction where the studs are___to___Inches apart. The minimum dimensions used for wood posts and beams are larger than the studs instead wall construction.
24in
12 to 16in
Typical dimensions for the posts are 6 x 8in when supporting roofs only. Post and beam construction requires the addition of other members such as diagonal braces to withstand lateral loads.
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When the joints between a column and a beam are reinforced so bending stresses can be transmitted through the joints, the structural system is known as a:
Rigid frame
The most easily recognized rigid frame structure is the single-story, gabled roof and rigid frame building
This type of rigid frame can be constructed of steel, laminated wood, or reinforced concrete.
Page 100
Because the joints are intended to transmit bending stresses, firefighter should pay particular attention to their design. The joints usually must be reinforced and will be the ____ portion of the assembly to fail under fire conditions.
Last
It is possible to build components of a frame using a series of trusses, as with the:
Arch and the rigid frame
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Slab and column frames are most frequently encountered in:
Concrete structures.
The floors of a multi story, reinforced concrete building are concrete slab. These floor slabs are supported by concrete columns. The intersection between the slab and column is a region of high stress and usually is reinforced by additional material in the form of a capital or a drop panel.
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System of construction in which the building consist primarily of enclosing surface and in which the stress resulting from the applied loads occur within the surface bearing wall structures.
Surface system
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Structure within an enclosing surface of a thin stretched flexible material. Examples of these are a simple tent or an air supported structure.
Membrane structure
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A membrane structure can be distinguished from a simple tent by its:
Permanence
Tents are used for short periods; membrane structures are permanent. Building codes typically address membrane structures with a life of 180 days or more, while fire codes address those to be used for less than 180 days.
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Membrane structures possess several design advantages. The fabrics used for roofs on membrane structures weigh less than other roof systems. Fabric roofs weigh only about___pounds per square foot.
2lbs
Membrane structures can usually be erected in less time than a rigid structural system. In addition, the fabrics used can flex and absorb some of the stresses caused by seismic and wind forces.
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Rigid, three-dimensional structure having an outer skin thickness that is small compared to other dimensions.
Shell structure
Shell structures lend themselves to regular geometric shapes such as: there are four of them
Cones
Domes
Barrel vaults
And folded plates
Shell structures are most commonly constructed of:
Concrete
Although it is possible to construct them using plywood or fiberglass.
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A power station cooling tower is an example of a:
Shell structure
A variety of structural components are available to the engineer to support the applied loads. These components, which include____,____,____,___, support loads in different ways.
Beams
Arches
Trusses
And columns
It must be emphasized that under fire conditions, the loads and stresses exerted on the structural system are subject to change in magnitude and direction resulting in structural failure.
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To the firefighter, the most significant characteristic of a building is not its architectural style but how it behaves ____ _______ ________.
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under fire conditions
All _____ ____ classify buildings by construction type. These classifica- tions are based on two attributes of building construction: _______ and ______.
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building codes
fire resistance and combustibility
_____ ________ determines the likelihood of structural collapse under fire conditions. ____ ______ nature of a building’s structural system will impact the rate of fire growth.
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Fire resistance
The combustible
Fire-resistive buildings permit firefighters to make a more aggressive ______ _______ than they can make in non-fire resistive buildings. Fire-resistive buildings also provide an increased degree of ___ ______.
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interior attack
occupant safety
— Rating assigned to a material or an assembly after standardized testing by an independent testing organization that identifies the amount of time a material or assembly of materials will resist a typical fire as measured on a standard time-temperature curve.
Fire resistance rating
From a fire protection standpoint, one of the most basic properties of building materials is their degree of ___ ____.
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fire resistance
Fire resistance is a function of the properties of all materials used, including combustibility, ______ ____, chemical composition, ____, and dimensions.
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thermal conductivity
density
_____ ____ is the ability of a structural assembly to maintain its load-bearing capacity and structural integrity under fire conditions.
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Fire resistance
The fire resistance of structural components can be evaluated quantitatively and is known as the:
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fire resistance rating
Building codes will have requirements for the fire resistance of structural elements such as the following:
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- Beams
- Columns
- Walls and partitions
- Floor and ceiling assemblies
- Roof and ceiling assemblies
A building code will typically require that columns supporting the floors in a fire-resistive building have a fire resis- tance rating of __ hours
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3
The walls enclosing an exit stairwell, which may or may not be load bear- ing, typically must have a fire-resistive rating of __ or __hours to protect the stairwell
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1 or 2
There are three means by which the fire resistance of structural assemblies can be determined:
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- Conducting standard fire resistance testing in a laboratory
- Performing analytical calculations to determine the resistance to a standard fire test exposure
- Employing analytical structural fire engineering design methods based on real fire exposure characteristics.
the most commonly used method of determining fire resistance is by _____ ______.
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laboratory test
The earliest known fire tests on building materials were conducted in _______ in _______. (2) In the United States the first known fire tests were conducted in _____, ______ in ______.
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Germany in 1884-86
Denver, Colorado in 1890
_______, Standard Method of Tests of Fire Endurance of Building Construction and Materials. It is also designated as ASTM E-119.
NFPA® 251
In the standard fire test, the furnace temperature is regulated to conform to a standard ___ _____ _____.
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time-temperature curve
In the test furnace a temperature of _____ is reached at five minutes and ______ after 30 minutes. At one hour the temperature is ______.
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1,000°F
1,550°F
1,700°F
The fire resistance ratings for floor and ceiling assemblies are developed for both ________ and ____ assemblies.
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restrained and unrestrained
______ affect the extent to which an assembly may expand or rotate at its ends when exposed to high temperatures, affecting its ability to support a load.
Restraints
restrained assemblies
When a structural specimen is tested, the test is continued until the specimen ___ or the specified ____ _____ for which the specimen being tested is reached.
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fails
fire endurance
Normally, assemblies are not tested beyond ___ hours because this is the maximum time required by the building codes.
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four
The primary points of failure for the test are as follows:
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(The specific failure criteria depend on the specimen being tested )
- Failure to support an applied load
- Temperature increase on the unexposed side of wall, floor, and roof assemblies of 250°F above ambient temperatures
- Passage of heat or flame through the assembly sufficient to ignite cotton waste
- Excess temperature on steel members*
Independent fire research and testing laboratory with headquarters in Northbrook, Illinois that certifies equipment and materials. Equipment and materials are approved only for the specific use for which it is tested.
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Underwriters Laboratories, inc. (UL) —
Although an assembly may fail at any point during the test, fire resistance ratings for test specimens, including fire doors and windows, are expressed in standard intervals such as 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 11⁄2 hours, 2 hours, 3 hours, and 4 hours. Thus, if a given assembly failed one hour and ten minutes into a test, its fire rating would be __ ___.
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one hour
It must be clearly understood that the fire-resistance ratings are established using a ____ ____ ___ ____.
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standard laboratory test fire
ASTM Standard ___, Standard Test Methods for Determining Effects of Large Hydrocarbon Pool Fires on Structural Members and Assemblies.
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(This test would be useful for evaluating the structural members used in such occupancies as petroleum refineries.)
1529
The ____test is the only method currently universally accepted by building codes.
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E-119
Solid materials, such as wood blocks, used to prevent or limit the vertical and horizontal spread of
fire and the products of combustion in hollow walls or floors, above false ceilings, in penetrations for plumbing or electrical installations, in penetrations of a fire-rated assembly, or in cocklofts and crawl spaces.
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Fire stop
It is important to remember that the standard test evaluates the ability of structural assemblies to carry a structural load and to act as a fire barrier. The test does not provide the following information:
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- Information about performance of assemblies constructed with components or lengths other than those tested
- Evaluation of the extent to which the assembly may generate smoke, toxic gases, or other products of combustion
- Measurement of the degree of control or limitation of the passage of smoke or products of combustion
- Fire behavior of joints between building elements such as floor-to-wall or wall-to-wall connections
- Measurement of flame spread over the surface of the tested material
- The effect on fire endurance of openings in an assembly such as electri- cal outlets and plumbing openings unless specifically provided for in the construction tested.
Joint systems for floor-to-wall and wall-to-wall connections are tested in accordance with UL Standard ____, “Standard for Fire Tests of Joint Systems.”
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2079
It is not uncommon over time for fire-resistive assemblies to be penetrated, which often occurs when buildings ____ ______.
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undergo renovation
The following are some of the organizations that perform fire-resistance testing:
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- Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
- Underwriters Laboratories of Canada
- Building Research Division of the National Research Council of Canada
- Southwest Research Institute
- Intertek Testing
- University of California at Berkeley, Forest Products Laboratory
- Armstrong Cork Company
- National Gypsum Company
______ _______ annually publishes a Fire tested and given fire-Resistance Directory, which lists assemblies that have been tested and their fire-resistance ratings.
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Underwriters Laboratories
ASCE/ SFPE ____, Standard Calculation Methods for Structural Fire Protection, provides the methods for calculating fire-resistance ratings that are equivalent to the results obtained from the standard fire test.
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29
are limited to use with:
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structural steel, plain and reinforced concrete, timber and wood, concrete masonry, and clay masonry
ASCE/ SFPE 29 calculation methods not provide accurate results when applied to materials that have not been used in the ___ ____.
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actual tests
In 1997, the ____ _____ _____ ___ (ASCE) and the ____ ____ _____ ____(SFPE) jointly developed a standard for the calcula- tion of fire resistance of structural elements.
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American Society of Civil Engineers
Society of Fire Protection Engineers
The _____ ____ standard time-temperature test is the most commonly used method of satisfying building code requirements for structural fire resistance.
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NFPA® 251
Incapable of supporting combustion under normal circumstances.
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Noncombustible
A _____ structure is classified as noncombustible; the lightweight wood construction that makes up the fast-food structure is classified as ________.
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concrete
combustible
Fundamentally, a ________ material is one that “in the form in which used and under the conditions anticipated, will not ignite, burn, support combustion, or release flammable vapors, when subjected to fire or heat.”
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noncombustible
The most commonly used test for determining combustibility is ____ ___, Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750°C.
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ASTME 136
Buildings are grouped into five major classifications. These classifications are commonly designated as follows:
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- Type I, Fire-Resistive
- Type II, Noncombustible or protected noncombustible
- Type III, Exterior protected (masonry)
- Type IV, Heavy timber
- Type V, Wood frame
_____ ______ do not make use of the descriptive terms fire-resistive, noncombustible, masonry, or wood-frame because they do not fully define the construction types. The codes make use of the _____ ______ only. The descriptive terms are included here because they were used in the past and may still be used to describe buildings.
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Building codes
numerical designations
Bricks, blocks, stones, and unreinforced and reinforced concrete products.
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Masonry
The _______ _______ used in the building codes are based on the materials used in construction and the hourly fire-resistance ratings required for the structural components.
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building classifications
With the exception of ___ ____ ____ ___, the major classifications are further divided into two or three subclassifications.
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Type IV, Heavy Timber
NFPA® ____ , Standard on Types of Building Construction, details the require- ments for each of the classifications and subclassifications.
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220
In NFPA® 220, each classification is designated by a three-digit number code. For example, Type I construction can be either 4-4-3 or 3-3-2. The digits are explained as follows:
• The first digit refers to the fire-resistance rating (in hours) of ____ ____ ___.
• The second digit refers to the fire-resistance rating of ______ ______ or _____ and ______ that support loads of more than one floor.
• The third digit indicates the fire-resistance rating of the _____ ______.
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exterior bearing walls
structural frames or columns and girders
floor construction
In Type IV construction the designation ___ is used.
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2HH
Building codes use the types of construction and building occupancy, in connection with sprinkler systems and separations, to establish limits on the ____ and ____ of buildings.
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heights and areas
Steel is a _________ material but it is not fire-resistive and must be ______ to attain fire resistance.
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noncombustible
protected
Type I construction is divided into two subclassifications:
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I-A and I-B.
Generally, bearing walls, columns, and beams are required to have a fire resistance of __ to ___ hours, depending on the code and the construction classification. Floor construction is required to have a fire resistance of ___ or ____ hour.
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Type I
two to four
two or three
The roof deck and construction supporting the roof must have a fire resistance of ___ to ____hours.
che
type I
one to two
Some building codes contain a provision to omit the fire- resistive rating for a roof construction for some occupancies when the roof is located more than feet above the floor.
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Type I
20
The fire-resistive compartmentation provided by partitions and floors tends to ____ the ____ of fire through a building. These features provide time for ______ ____ and interior fire fighting.
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retard the spread
occupant evacuation
As a practical matter, building codes usually per- mit a limited use of combustible materials in Type I construction.Combustible materials typically are permitted for such uses as the following:
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- Roof coverings
- Interior floor finishes
- Interior wall finishes and trims
- Doors and door frames
- Window sashes and frames
- Platforms
- Nailing and furring strips
- Light-transmitting plastics
- Foam plastics subject to restrictions
_____ concrete increases its structural strength.
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Reinforcing
The two most common methods of constructing Type I buildings are by using:
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reinforced concrete or a protected steel frame
________ is an inherently noncombustible material with good thermal insulating properties.
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Concrete
Unprotected steel has no ___ ____. When steel is used in fire-resistive designs, it must be protected by an _____ ______.
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fire resistance
insulating material
The thickness of the _______ material can be varied to achieve dif- ferent fire ratings.
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insulating
_____ ____ can be either protected or unprotected.
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Type II construction (noncombustible)
The use of ______ ______ is the most common characteristic of unprotected, noncombustible construction
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unprotected steel
In Type II construction, structural steel is frequently provided with a degree of fire resistance that is less than that required for Type I construction. This has sometimes been referred to as protected ______ _______.
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noncombustible construction.
Type II construction has two subclassifications, designated ______ ______ .
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II-A and II-B
In II-A construction the structural components are required to have __ ___ fire resistance. In II-B construction structural components are ______.
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one-hour
unprotected
An unprotected, noncombustible building cannot be expected to provide _____ ______ under fire conditions
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structural stability
The point at which unprotected members will fail, however, depends on the following factors:
- Ceiling height of the building
- Size of the unprotected steel members
- Intensity and duration of the exposing fire
____ construction has been commonly referred to as “ordinary construc- tion.”
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Type III
Type III construction is frequently constructed with exterior walls of masonry, but from a technical standpoint any ________ material with the required fire resistance can be used for the exterior walls
noncombustible
Interior structural members including walls, columns, beams, floors, and roofs are permitted to be partially or ____ _____.
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type III
wholly combustible
The interior structural members of Type III construction may be ______ or ______.
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protected or unprotected
Type III construction has two subclassifications:
• Type III A construction is required to have a ____ ___ _____ rating for interior members
• Type III B construction has ___ ____ ___ requirements for the interior members.
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one-hour fire-resistive
no fire resistance
When the structural components of Type III con struction are required to have a fire ratingthey can be protected by several means. Probably the most common are the use of _____ in older buildings and ___ ____ in newer buildings
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plaster
gypsum board
The dimensions of the wood used in Type III construction are permitted to be smaller than those required in Type IV construction. In Type III construction it would not be uncommon to use nominal __ __-inch joists for floor construction. But in Type IV construction, the minimum dimensions would be nominal __ __ inch for floor construction.
2- x 10
6 x 10
A fundamental fire concern with Type III construction is the combustible concealed spaces that are created between ___ and ___ _____ and between _____ ___ _____ walls when they are covered with interior finish materials.
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floor and ceiling joists
studs in partition
It is essential, therefore, that the concealed spaces in Type III construction be properly ______.
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fire-stopped
Dropped ceilings can facilitate ___ ____and make it difficult for firefighters to find the seat of a fire.
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hidden fires
When combustible materials become involved in a fire they will be _____ and ____.
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type III
consumed and collapse
Type ___ construction is commonly known as heavy-timber or “mill” construction.
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IV
Like Type III construction, the exterior walls are normally of _______ construction and the interior structural members are ________.
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Type IV
masonry
combustible
There are two important distinctions between Type III and Type IV construction:
• In Type IV construction the beams, columns, floors, and roofs are made of ____ or ______ wood with dimensions greater than in Type III construction.
• ______ ______ are not permitted between structural members in Type IV construction.
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solid or laminated
Concealed spaces
_______ construction was used extensively in factories, mills, and warehouses in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Itisnotcommonlyusedinnew construction for multistory buildings.
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Type IV
Today, heavy-timber wood frame construction is encountered primarily where it is desired for ______.
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appearance
The primary fire hazard associated with Type IV construction is the ______ _____ _____ ______ by the large structural members in addition to the building contents.
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massive amount of fuel presented
The greater mass of the heavy-timber components provides greater ______ ______ under fire conditions than the structural members used in Type III buildings.
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structural endurance
If the members have not been exposed to a prolonged fire, it is possible to sandblast away the _______ and continue their use after a fire.
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Type IV
charring
In Type V construction, also commonly known as ____ ____ ___, all major structural components are permitted to be of _________ construction.
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wood-frame construction
combustible
. Many Type V structures are required to have a ____ fire resistance for the structural members. This is typically accomplished by protecting the combustible frame members with _____ or fire-rated _____ ____.
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1-hour
plaster
gypsum board
Method for construction of wood-frame buildings. Replaced the use of heavy timber wood framing.
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Light-Frame Construction
A fundamental problem posed by Type V construction is the creation of combustible concealed ____ and ____more extensive than are found in Type III construction.
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voids and channels
Because it is inherently combustible, a __ ___building can become totally involved and completely destroyed in a fire .
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Type V
Several different methods can be used to construct a Type V building. In modern practice, wood-frame buildings are most often constructed using a method known as ____ ___ _____.
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light-frame construction
“the common currency of small residential and commercial buildings in ___ ____ ____.”
North America today
Some buildings are allowed to have a mixed use and a ____ _______ type. This situation may be found where a different type of structure is built on top on an existing one.
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mixed construction
In some jurisdictions it is permissible to have Type V construction over Type I construction up to a height of __ __.
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70 feet
Building codes contain height limitations for the different construction _______.
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classifications.
The amount of fuel within a compartment expressed in pounds per square foot obtained by dividing the amount of fuel present by the floor area.
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Fire Load
Fire load is used as a measure of the____ ____release of a fire within a compartment. Also known as fuel load.
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potential heat
The ___ ____ is the product of the weight of the combustibles multiplied by their heat of combustion. It is typically expressed in terms of ____ _____ _____ ___. The fire load will vary depending on the heat of combustion of the ____.
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fire load
pounds per square foot
fuel
Ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, and similar materials have heats of combustion between ____ and ____ ____ per pound.
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7,000 and 8,000 BTU
Buildings with combustible structural components (Types __, __ and __) have an inherently greater ___ ___ than Types I or II because the structural framing materials contribute a significant amount of fuel to a fire.
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III, IV, and V
fire load
A fire load does not translate into an equivalent _____ ___.
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structural load
For example, a warehouse of Type IV (heavy-timber) construction containing iron radiators would have a light fire load but a very large structural load. Conversely, a toy store would have a moderate structural load but a high fire load because most toys are combustible with combustible packaging
Building codes classify buildings according to their _____ as well as their ______ type. The occupancy classifications assign building occupancies into groups with broadly similar fire risks.
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occupancy
construction
International Building Code (Ibc) Classifications
The building codes group building occupancies into occupancy classifications. The International Building Code (IBC) contains ten major occupancy classifications:
ABE Father Hx Is, MI, Renal, Stroke, Uti
• Assembly Group A • Business Group B • Educational Group E • Factories Group F • High Hazard Group H • Institutional Group I • Mercantile Group M • Residential Group R • Storage Group S • Utility and Group U. Miscellaneous
As an example, in the IBC, residential occupancies (occupancy group R) are subdivided into four subgroups:
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R-1, R-2, R-3, and R-4.
Occupancies with primarily transient occupants including hotels and motels.
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R-1
Occupancies with primarily permanent occupants and more than two dwelling units, such as apartment buildings, dormitories, and non transient hotels.
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R-2
Occupancies with primarily permanent occupants and not more than two dwelling units. In addition, adult facilities that provide accommodations for five or fewer persons of any age for less than 24 hours and child care facilities for five or fewer persons of any age for less than 24 hours.
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R-3
Occupancies used as assisted-living facilities with five to sixteen occupants.
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R-4
Occupancies are subdivided into ___ subgroups:
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five
A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, and A-5
Assembly occupancies, usually with fixed seating such as motion picture theaters and concert halls.
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A-1
Assembly occupancies used for consuming food and drink such as night clubs and restaurants.
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A-2
Assembly occupancies intended for viewing indoor sporting events such as tennis courts and arenas.
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A-4
Assembly occupancies used for worship, recreation, or amusement such as bowling alleys, churches, dance halls, and exhibition halls.
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A-3
Assembly uses for outdoor activities such as bleachers,
grandstands, and stadiums.
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A-5
The IBC contains a total of __ ______ within the 10 major occupancy classifications. The IBC also makes separate provision for one-and two-family dwellings not more than ____ _____ high.
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26 subgroups
three stories
NFPA® 5000, Building Construction and Safety Code, and NFPA® 101 Life Safety Code®, make use of 12 major occupancy classifications:
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- Assembly
- Educational
- Day care
- Health care
- Ambulatory health care
- Detention and correctional
- Residential
- Residential board and care
- Mercantile
- Business
- Industrial
- Storage
The different occupancies will pose different ______ to each other. A mercantile occupancy could endanger the occupants of a nightclub.
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hazards
Required separations can vary from ___ to ____ hours and not all occupancies would require a separation.
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Mixed Occ
one to three
The specific requirements for occupancy separation will depend on the ___ ____ ___.
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local building code
Three manuals that you can use to find more information on building systems:
IFSTA plans examiner
Fire detection and suppression systems
Fire inspection and code enforcement
Unprotected openings are often found around: there are two of them
Pipes and cables
Lack of protection can allow fire to spread between floors and compartments
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Whose responsibility is it to ensure that the necessary building systems initially provide the intended level of fire and life safety.
The building design team
Subsequently, it is the responsibility of the building owner and or management to maintain these systems overtime
Safe, continuous path of travel from any point in the structure to a public way; It is composed of three parts: the exit access, the exit, and the exit discharge.
Means of egress
A stair that usually connects to floors in a multistory building
Convenience stair
Vertical distance between the treads of a stairway or the height of the entire stairway.
Rise
The horizontal measurement of a stair tread or the distance of the entire stair length
Run
Most stairs provide a dual role as a building system:
They enable occupants to access various levels of the structure
They serve as a basic component of building egress during an emergency
Stairs that are part of the required means of egress must meet strict requirements of the applicable building code, and generally are either fully enclosed or:
Protected open exterior stairs
In either case, the building code specifies the fire resistance rating of the enclosure or separation when exterior stairs are utilized.
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Exit stairs must resist____and____to ensure safe passage during building evacuation.
Fire and smoke
This level of protection also provides firefighters a safe route to access and attack a fire.
Stairs that are not part of the means of egress are often referred to as:
Convenience stairs
Typically, these stairs are open and limited by code to connecting only two levels
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It is not unusual to find_____provided to access mechanical spaces, roof hatches at the top of stairways, and between roof levels with portions at different elevations.
Ships ladders
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In buildings____or more stories in height, one stairway is generally required to extend to the roof unless the slope of the roof is especially steep. This stair is required to be identified by signage in the stairway.
4 or more
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All stair types have components in common. A key component is the step itself, which consists of the tread and the riser, commonly referred to as the “____and____”
Run and rise
For safety purposes, the code requires that the run and rise be consistent throughout the same stair.
Other important features are the handrails and guards required when the stairs have open sides. The guards are intended to prevent objects from falling onto adjacent space.
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Stairs that extend in a straight line for their entire length. Landings may be found, breaking up the stairs vertical travel it at intervals specified by codes.
Straight run stairs
When talking about the components of stairs, the run may also be called the:
Tread
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Stairs that have an intermediate landing between floors and reverse direction at that point. They may have more than one landing where the height between floors is greater than normal. This type of stair design is common in modern construction.
Return stairs
Two separate sets of stairs constructed in a common shaft. They are less expensive to build than two separate stair enclosures and also use less floor space. Not found in recent design practices.
Scissor stairs
The newer design arrangement for scissor stairs allows for ingress and egress at each floor landing, this feature is not only less confusing but it also is used to provide additional exit capacity.
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Stairs that can be confusing. Older designs exit on every other floor; newer designs have exits on each floor:
Scissor stairs
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The six most common types of stairs:
Straight run
Return
Scissor
Circular
Folding
Spiral
Two sets of crisscrossing stairs in a common shaft; each set serves every floor but on alternately opposite sides of the stair shaft. For example, once that would serve the West Wing on even numbered floors and the East wing odd-numbered floors, while the other set would serve floors opposite to the first set.
Scissor stairs
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Stairs that are often found as grand stairs or convenience stairs serving only two levels. The minimum width of the run is usually 10 inches.
Circular stairs
A special requirement of this type of stair is that the small radius is not less than twice the width of the stairway.
Circular stairs
Circular stairs must remain a certain width
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Stairs that are typically found in dwellings where they are used to provide access to an attic space that does not have a permanent access stair.
Folding stairs
Usually made up of wood in sections, the main section that hinges from the frame and to articulating sections. Most often located in a hallway.
Under fire conditions the springs in the stairs lose tension rapidly when exposed to heat, and the stair assembly may swing down into the structure during a fire, striking a firefighter working in the area.
Folding stairs
Firefighters must also be cautious when using folding stairs due to weight limitations.
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Stair with code required fire rated enclosure construction. Intended to protect occupants as they make their way through the stair enclosure.
Protected stair enclosure
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This type of stair allows stairs to be placed in a very small space. They consist of a series of steps spiraling a round a single column. Each tread is tapered and connects to the column at the treads narrow end.
Spiral stairs
They are typically custom-made, spiral stairs are not enclosed and are usually found in private homes, however, they may also be found in commercial occupancies for limited use.
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This type of stair is generally allowed as part of the means of egress only within residences.
Spiral stairs
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Studies show that even a minor impairment in visibility significantly reduces the occupants ability to:
Safely egress
Exterior stairs provide a means of egress that is:
Open to the elements
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Exterior enclosed stairs are a good means of egress because:
They can be protected from the fire and smoke that develop inside a building
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Generally, stair enclosures are required to be separated from the rest of the building. The only penetrations permitted in the enclosure are for: there are 3 of them
Light
Fire protection
Environmental control
Self or automatic closing fire rated doors are required
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For details on stair enclosure constructions consult:
The applicable billing code
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As defined by codes, these stairs are exterior to a building and are open to the air. They are naturally ventilated but may be partially enclosed from the weather. They will have at least one side open to provide natural ventilation.
Exterior stairs
Enclosed stairs on the exterior of a building are considered the same as interior enclosed the stairs.
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Open metal stairs and landings attached to the outside of a building:
Fire escape
The lowest flight may consist of a swinging stare section to limit unwanted access. Stairs that have been exposed to weather must be continually inspected and maintained. Open exterior stairs that are not supported at the grade level but are supported only from one side of the building must be used with extra caution.
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Codes have not permitted fire escapes in new construction for:
Many decades
So the fire escapes that do exist have been in place for many years. Many older fire escapes have failed when loaded with people during an emergency.
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Fire escapes are usually anchored to the building and are not supported at the ground level. These anchor points are subjected to:
The freeze thaw cycle
Corrosion from pollution and whether
And temperature changes.
The mortar and which the anchors are set may have deteriorated or may have originally been in adequate for their load potential.
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Warning!!! Because the structural soundness of a fire escape may not be apparent, firefighters must use extreme caution during an emergency response. The fire escape structure itself may be severely weekend due to constant exposure and lack of maintenance over a period of years. Firefighter should keep these factors in mind when deciding whether a fire escape is usable.
There is no answer for this card. It was a big warning sign on the side of the page in a Redbox it looked important
Means of escaping from a building in case of a fire; usually an interior or exterior stairway or slide independently supported and made a fire resistant material. Traditional term for an exterior stair, frequently incorporating a movable section, usually of noncombustible construction that is intended as an emergency exit. It is usually supported by hangers installed in the exterior wall of the building.
Fire escape
There were several definitions for fire escapes so I added all of them to make sure we covered all of our bases.
The info is on page 115
Stairways that are designed to limit the penetration of smoke, heat, and toxic gases from a fire on a floor of a building into the stairway and that serve as part of a means of egress.
Smoke proof enclosures
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Building codes have traditionally required a minimum of one smoke proof stair enclosure for stairs serving buildings_____stories or higher, and more recently stairs serving floor levels more than 30 feet below the level of exit discharge.
5
Stair enclosures may be classified as smoke proof using either active or passive smoke control. Typically, smoke proof stair enclosures are on the exterior perimeter of the building and are entered through ventilated vestibules or open exterior balconies.
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A common alternative approach over the past 25 years to provide a smoke proof enclosure is to pressurize stairwells when the building is in a fire mode. Activated by automatic fire or smoke detection equipment, a dedicated mechanical air handling system it’s designed to keep smoke out of the stair enclosure by:
Pressurizing the shaft
The mechanical pressurization system keeps the stair enclosure free of smoke, even when a door is open to the fire floor.
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A pressurized stairwell incorporates a ventilation system that pushes air into the stairwell, which:
Helps keep smoke from a fire out of the stairwell.
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This type of stair enclosure is accessed by using a vestibule or an exterior balcony. The design protects the stairway enclosure from smoke by providing a means for the smoke to be vented to the outside before it enters the stair enclosure.
Passive smoke proof enclosures
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Because they are not enclosed with fire rated construction, this type of stair will likely serve as a path for spread of fire and smoke and will not protect anyone using them from exposure to the products of combustion.
Open the stairs
Building codes typically allow the use of open stairs in buildings only when they connect no more than two adjacent floors above the basement level. The stairs are sometimes referred to as convenient stairs and can be used as part of an exit system and a two-story building.
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________ __________ is key to survival on the fireground.
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Situational awareness
Concrete has many applications in building construction. It is used for _____, ______,____,_____,_____and concrete masonry units. Its advantages are that it can be produced from raw materials that are usually locally available and are low in cost. Like masonry, concrete does ___ ____. It also resists _____ and the effects of contact with soil.
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pavement, foundations, columns, floors, walls,
not burn
insects
In almost all structural applications concrete is reinforced with ____. Only in a few applications such as sidewalks or driveways would concrete be used without ______.
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steel
reinforcement
Concrete is produced from:
The ____ used in concrete are inert mineral ingredients that reduce the amount of cement that would otherwise be needed.
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Portland cement, coarse and fine aggregates, and water
aggregates
*The aggregates make up a large percentage of the total volume of concrete.
Gravel, stone, sand, or other inert materials used in concrete. These materials may be fine or coarse.
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aggregate
Maintaining conditions to achieve proper strength during the hardening of concrete.
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Curing
Curing fresh concrete requires correct ____ and _________control. Improper curing methods will negatively affect the finished surface of concrete as well as its _______ .
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hydration and temperature
strength
Maintaining conditions to achieve proper strength during the hardening of concrete.
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Curing
________ of concrete involves a chemical process known as hydration. In hydration, water combines with the particles of cement to form a microscopic gel.
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Hardening
As the concrete hardens, this gel gives off heat, which is known as the:
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heat of hydration
Concrete initially hardens ____ _____ but then begins to harden more ______. Because hydration involves water, proper curing requires that the concrete be kept ______ until it reaches its desired strength.
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fairly quickly
slowly
moist
It can be seen that the moist curing of concrete,
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produces a stronger concrete
Concrete can be kept moist by several techniques including:
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sprinkling it with water, ponding, or covering it with a plastic film
Concrete that is curing must be maintained at the correct temperature, ideally between ___ - ___. Concrete that is cured at or above ___ will not reach its proper strength; concrete cured near freezing temperatures will ____ ____ ____. In ____ concrete structures, the heat of hydration generated can adversely affect the final strength of the concrete.
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50°-70°F
100°F
harden more slowly
massive
Concrete can be cooled by using during curing ___ ___or using ___ ____ in the mixing process. If concrete is to be placed near freezing temperature it can be protected with a _____ enclosure.
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cold water
chilled water
heated
During the curing process concrete will ____ slightly. Theoretically, properly cured concrete continues to harden indefinitely at a gradual rate; however, normal design strength is reached after __ ___.
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shrink
28 days
Three methods of passive smoke containment:
A vestibule
A balcony
A smoke shaft
All can be used to prevent smoke from traveling into a building and or contaminating a stairwell.
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Convenience stairs connect different areas of a building but do not lead to:
An exit
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Elevators are a key building system for providing access to above or below grade stories. They can be a_____or_____factor for firefighters during a fire response.
Positive or negative
Problems with the elevators themselves or the loss of electrical power can create potentially dangerous rescue situations.
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Because of their importance and the obvious need for safety and reliability, elevators have developed into safe and reliable modes of transportation. Elevator____,____,and ____are stringently controlled and monitored by all levels of government.
Design
Construction
And operation
Most elevator regulations are based on the safety code for elevators, published by the American Society of mechanical engineers.
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A federal statute intended to remove barriers-physical or otherwise-that limit access by individuals with disabilities.
Americans with disabilities act of 1990
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Each jurisdiction is urged to establish its own set of____and____on the use of elevators during fires and to practice these procedures during drills.
Policies and procedures
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An elevator is a____and____mechanism equipped with a car or platform that moves in guide rails and serves two or more levels or landings.
Hoisting and lowering
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Elevators can be classified according to their use as either_____or_____.
Passenger or freight
Service elevator is another term used to describe elevators and often is defined as a passenger elevator that has been designed to carry freight.
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Elevators use some form of power to perform the hoisting and lowering operations. The two most common types are:
Hydraulic and electric
Page 119
The operating principle of hydraulic elevators involves:
A fluid being forced under pressure into a cylinder containing a piston or RAM.
As the fluid is pumped in the ram rises in the attached elevator car moves upward. As the fluid drains out the car is lowered by gravity.
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Hydraulic elevators do not have:
Brakes
Cars are slowed and stopped by controlling the flow of hydraulic fluid back into the reservoir.
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The practical upper limit for hydraulic elevators is about:
Six stories
However, some hydraulic elevators installed and taller buildings now use a multistage hydraulic cylinder rather than a single stage RAM. This reduces the overall length of the cylinder as well as the depth of the well that needs to be provided.
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Electric elevators are subdivided into two categories:
Drum or traction devices
Drum elevators-older style elevators employ a drum on which the hoisting cable is wound. The car is connected to a set of moving counterweights to reduce the effort the motor must produce to raise the car. This type of elevator is obsolete and is found only in very old structures. However, drum elevator still may be found in use as freight elevators.
***Traction elevators-the most common type of elevator and buildings over six stories because it is very fast and does not have a height limitations of either hydraulic or drum type elevators. Like drum elevators they use counterweights. The hoist cables do not wind around the drive sheave-they merely pass over it.
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NOTE historically, elevator cables have utilize conventional wire cables. However, recent designs use:
Flat polyethylene coated steel belts
The increase energy efficiency
Page 120
The height to which electric elevators operate may require them to have as much as a_____volt power supply.
500 V
The drive motors may be either direct current or alternating current
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And electric elevators, traction motors have a braking system that operates during both normal operation and malfunctions. The system employs a brake drum located on the:
Drive motor
Under normal conditions the spring operated brake shoes are held away from the drum by electromagnets. In the event of a power failure, the electromagnets release and the brake shoes are forced against the drum. This results in the car being stopped where ever it was when the power failed.
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The excellent safety record of elevators can be attributed to strict regulation, rigorous engineering to reduce the likelihood of failure, and numerous safety devices designed to limit the effects of any failures that do occur. These safety devices include:
Terminal switches
Buffers
Speed reducing and overspeed switches
Car safeties
Page 121
In an elevator, and electric switch designed to stop the car by removing power before it reaches the upper or lower limits of the hoistway.
Terminal device
Page 121
In an elevator, large springs or hydraulic cylinders and pistons located at the bottom of the pit that act as a shock absorbers should be terminal switch fail. They cannot safely stop a free falling car. They only stop one traveling at a normal rate of speed.
Buffers
Page 121
In elevators, this is also known as the speed governor. This switch slows the drive motor when an elevator starts to exceed a safe speed. If the car continues to accelerate, it applies the car safeties and trips the overspeed switch.
Speed reducing switch
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In elevators, this is also connected to the speed governor. This switch is activated if the speed reducing switch fails to slow the car sufficiently.
Overspeed switch
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In elevators, these are tapered sets of steel jaws that wedge against the guide rails and bring the elevator to a stop. They are designed to stop a FREE FALLING CAR.
Car Safeties
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Tendency of heat, smoke, and other products of combustion to rise until they encounter a horizontal obstruction. At this point they will spread laterally until they encounter vertical obstructions and begin to bank downward.
Mushrooming
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The vertical shaft in which the elevator car travels and includes the elevator pit:
Elevator hoistway
Hoistways are required to be constructed of fire resistive materials and are equipped with fire rated door assemblies. Some hoistways, such as those located in an atrium, are not required to be enclosed
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Elevator hoistway enclosures usually are required to be a fire rated assembly with a___or___hour rating, depending on the particular situation.
1 or 2
No wiring, ductwork, or piping should be run within the hoistway unless it is required for the elevator itself.
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Elevator hoistways present a potential for acting as a vertical chimney to spread fire and smoke throughout a building. To prevent mushrooming, Building codes require:
Venting at the top of practically every hoistway built today
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If a building contains_____or fewer elevators, the codes permit them to be placed in one hoistway.
3
When four or more elevators are provided, there must be a minimum of two separate hoistways.
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When more than one hoistway is provided, up to____elevators may be located in one hoistway.
4
Elevators within a given hoistway usually are not separated by any sort of partition.
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Single elevator hoist ways that serve only upper levels have access doors for rescue purposes every____floors or so in that portion without normal hoistway doors.
3 floors
Page 123
In very tall buildings, elevators are divided into zones, with one zone serving the lower floors and another zone serving the upper floors. A zone usually serves___to___floors.
15-20 floors
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Used for express elevators that serve only upper floors of tall buildings. There are no entrances to the shaft on floors between the main entrance and the lowest floor served.
Blind hoistway
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Doors in elevator installations include both car doors and hoistway doors. The two are usually designed to open:
In the same direction and to open and closed together.
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Passenger elevator car doors are powered by an _____ mounted on top of the elevator car. The car door does not have locks and can be pushed open at any time.
Electric motor
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_____Will not allow an elevator car to move when the car doors are open and a moving car will stop immediately if the doors are pushed open.
Electric interlocks
When the elevator stops at the correct level, the hoistway doors are held open by a driving being attached to the car door.
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If the elevator car is stopped in a blind hoistway, the emergency exits from the car must be used. These exits consist of either a hinged access hatch on the top of the car or hinged or removable panels on the sides of the car. This should be done:
Only as a last resort
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On hydraulic elevators, a top exit may or may not be provided depending on the weather the system is equipped with a:
Manual lowering valve
The valve permits the lowering of the car in the event of a malfunction. Some top panels are designed to be open from the inside of the car, but all can be open from outside and all open outwards.
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In multiple elevator hoistways, most elevator cars are equipped with side exits to allow passengers to be:
Transferred laterally from a stalled car to a functioning car next to it.
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Commonly called escalators, these are stairways with electrically powered steps that move continuously in one direction.
Moving stairs
Older escalators usually operate at speeds of either 90 or 120 ft./m.
However, speeds now have been standardized at 100 ft./m. Each individual step ride to track. The steps are linked and move around the escalator frame buy a chain called the step chain.continuous handrails also move at the same speed as the steps.
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Typically, the vertical openings created by escalators need to be protected when serving more than:
Two floors
The most common method of protecting the vertical opening is to use closely spaced sprinklers in conjunction with draft stops around the opening. This approach consists of an 18 inch deep draft stop with a row of automatic sprinklers on all sides outside the draft stop.
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Vertical opening protection and escalators can also be provided by a:
Rolling shutter at the top of the escalator.
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Moving escalators should not be used during emergency operations but should be stopped to be available as:
Fixed stairs
An emergency stop switch is available that will stop the escalator and set the brake.
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These are similar to escalators but are only used to move people horizontally or up a slight inclines.
Moving walkways
They are commonly found in airports
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A conveyor system is typically found in_____or____and is used to transport items and materials. They are also found in airport baggage handling facilities.
Conveyor system
Conveyor systems often pass through fire barriers. These penetrations are usually protected by either providing a fire door or shutter or by utilizing a Waterspray method. A primary concern for conveyor penetrations during a fire is incomplete door or shutter closure.
Page 126
Vertical shafts also include stairways and elevator and dumbwaiter hoistways, which have been previously discussed.
There is no answer for this card just some information.
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This is a term generally applied to the vertical pathway in a building that contains utility services. The services include plumbing, electrical raceways, telecommunications, data cables, and ductwork for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. They are also provided for refuse chutes, laundry chutes, and light shafts. Knowledge of these shafts is critical because they can provide a vertical path for smoke and fire as well as serve as the area of origin for fires.
Utility Chase
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Vertical shaft enclosures are built using fire rated construction methods but may contain combustible materials.
This is a type of utility Chase used to contain piping needed for building services such as hot and cold potable water, drain lines, steam, hot and chilled water for heating and air-conditioning, and sprinkler piping.
Pipe chase
Another definition is: concealed vertical channel in which pipes and other utility conduits are housed. Pipe chases that are not properly protected can be major contributors to the vertical spread of smoke and fire in a building. Also called Chase.
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Pipe chases must be surrounded by:
Fire resistive construction to ensure fire safety.
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A vertical shaft with a self closing access door on every floor; usually extending from the basement or ground floor to the top floor of multi story buildings.
Refuse chute
Provides for the removal of trash and garbage from upper floors. Extend through the building and have openings on each floor for depositing trash or linen. These chutes and rooms create a frequent fire response.
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In a refuse chute sprinklers are required:
At the top of the chute and in its termination room.
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They pose a significant fire hazard because of combustibles placed in them
Installed as part of an exhaust system for commercial cooking appliances that produce grease laden vapors. They are typically installed over deep fat fryers and grills. They travel vertically and carry grease vapors to the outside of the building, often utilizing in-line fans or fans on the roof.
Grease duct
Some design applications include horizontal ducts
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Provided in buildings primarily to maintain a comfortable environment for occupants.
HVAC systems
The functions provided by an HVAC system include heating, cooling, filtering, humidifying, and dehumidifying.
They also regulate the intake of outdoor air and the recirculation of indoor air to provide acceptable air-quality.
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HVAC systems have the potential to significantly impact any fire event. With the trend toward green building design, HVAC systems of the future may incorporate such natural ventilation features as:
Openable windows and vents in roofs.
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Usually a single, integrated unit with a complex system of ducts throughout the building.
HVAC system
Also called air handling system
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In a one story convenience store, heating and air conditioning might be provided by:
A single rooftop unit
In a high-rise office building, the total HVAC system could include hundreds of feet of ductwork, heating equipment, refrigeration equipment, motors, and blowers-all monitored and controlled by computers.
Page 129
Many years ago,_____were a common way to facilitate ventilation.
Cupolas
Page 130
Today, many buildings have windows that:
Do not open or have no windows at all.
The consequence has been near total dependence on the HVAC system to provide not only a comfortable environment but also a livable environment. In many complex building is the HVAC system has become in effect a LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM.
Page 130
A distinction should be made between an HVAC system and a simple ventilation or exhaust system. An HVAC system provides_____to building occupants. A ventilation or exhaust system may only provide for the removal of contaminated air.
Conditioned air
Page 130
It is possible to provide heating and or cooling in a building without the use of ducted systems. Systems that make use of water as the heat transfer medium are known as:
Hydronic systems
Many HVAC systems involve the distribution of conditioned air through a building from one or more mechanical equipment rooms. Such systems are generally known as forced air systems.
Page 130
NFPA____is the standard for installation of air conditioning and ventilation systems.
90A
In general, a fire and or smoke damper may be required when ever a duct penetrates a fire rated assembly.
Page 131
NFPA 90A requires that the HVAC enclosure shafts be___hour rated for buildings less than four stories in height and___hour fire rated for buildings for stories or greater.
1
2
Page 132
The advantage in placing an HVAC equipment room on the top floor is that is easy to take in_____and eject_____to the atmosphere.
Make up air
exhaust air
Page 132
Fans move the air throughout the HVAC system, But will also move smoke and heat if it is introduced into the system._____are typically provided for fans with capacities exceeding 2000 cubic ft per minute, to shut down the systems under fire conditions and minimize unwanted smoke movement.
Duct detectors
Page 134
In HVAC systems, air can be cleaned with____, or____, or both.
Filters or electrostatic equipment
Electrostatic equipment can present a significant electrical equipment hazard.
Page 134
In HVAC systems, heating equipment can be fuel fired, such as natural gas or oil burner, or the heat may be produced using:
Electricity or steam
Page 134
Natural gas is:
LPG (Propane) is:
Lighter than air and rises
Heavier than air and collects in low areas
Page 134
Is the air distribution component of the HVAC system:
Air duct
Another definition is: channel or enclosure, usually of sheet metal, used to move heating and cooling air through a building. Hollow pathways used to move air from one area to another in ventilation systems.
Page 134
The space between the suspended ceiling and the roof deck is called:
The interstitial space
They are used as a return air Plenum
Another definition is: in building construction, refers to generally inaccessible spaces between layers of building materials. May be large enough to provide a potential space for fire to spread unseen to other parts of the building.
Page 134
What is the primary sheltering element for the interior of the building?
The roof
What are the fundamental safety points that must always be kept in mind regarding roofs?
-Roofs are usually not as strong as floors because they are typically designed to support lighter live loads.
– Many types of roof construction have inherent concealed spaces between the ceiling and the roof deck, making it difficult to determine the extent to which fire has developed overhead
-Over time, loads may be added to Roofs for which they were not originally designed.
– Roofs are subject to wear and tear ration from elements
Because the roof is waterproof, affects fires in what way
- The fact that a roof is waterproof covering for a building can frustrate efforts to control a fire from above.
- The waterproof nature of a roof tends to limit the penetration of streams from ladder pipes and platform apparatus into the seat of the fire.
- If the roof collapses into a structure, it will form a waterproof covering over buried fire.
To prevent the recirculation of smoke through the HVAC system and to facilitate removal of the smoke, and HVAC system can be switched from its normal operating mode to:
Fire mode
The transfers can be accomplished either automatically or manually.
Page 135
HVAC systems can be automatically transferred into fire mode by:
Smoke detectors
Sprinkler water flow switches
Heat detectors
When the system goes into fire operation, dampers can be opened or closed, depending on the location of the fire, to redirect the flow of air and to exhaust the smoke.
Page 135
In an HVAC system in fire mode, the supply of air to the fire floor has been stopped by closing a damper while air continues to be supplied to adjacent floors. Continuing the supply of air to the non-fire floors creates a_______of higher air pressure on floors above and below the fire floors.
Pressure sandwich
This reduces the migration of smoke into those areas
Page 135
The advantages of automatic transfer of an HVAC system into smoke control mode:
It is relatively fast and will be activated during nighttime hours when occupants are asleep
Page 136
The design of a smoke control system requires extensive engineering analysis. In the design of the system, the designer must take into account such factors as the:
Anticipated fire size
Outside weather conditions
The volume of a fire zone
The maximum pressure differences across barriers such as stairwell doors
Page 137
The advantages of manually transferring and HVAC system into fire mode:
The elimination of system disruption due to false alarms and more specific system control.
Page 137
When an HVAC systems fire mode has both automatic and manual capability the_____shall take priority over the______control.
Manual over the automatic
Page 137
An obvious disadvantage to the manual operation of an HVAC’s fire mode is:
It is slower than automatic operation.
Manual activation usually occurs after arrival of the fire department and may not occur until late in the fire development when a danger to life may have already developed.
Page 137
A smoke control system in an HVAC system should not be activated by using:
Manual pull stations on the building fire alarm system.
This is to avoid the possibility of occupants seeing a fire but not operating a pull station until they have fled another area of the building.
Page 137
There are two methods that can be used to protect and enclosed stairwell from smoke:
Use of a smoke proof tower
Provide for stairwell pressurization
The pressure in the stairwell must be high enough that it will prevent the flow of smoke into the stairwell, but not so high that people cannot open the door into the stairwell.
Page 138
NFPA 92A, standard for smoke control systems utilizing barriers and pressure differences, requires a minimum pressure difference of ___ inches, water gauge across a smoke barrier in a sprinklered building.
.05
Page 138
There are two general design methods used for pressurize stairwells:
Single injection method
Multiple injection system
Page 139
The simplest means of controlling the exhaust dampers is to use dampers with:
Adjustable counterweights
The dampers open when an overpressure condition in the stairwell is reached.
Page 140
The type of heat and smoke vents typically encountered are individual small area hatchways (a minimum of____feet in either direction is typical) with a single or double leaf metal lids or plastic dome designed to open automatically or manually.
4ft
Page 141
These are used in conjunction with smoke vents to increase their effectiveness. They reduce the dissipation of the heated air currents from a fire and increase the speed of operation of the vents.
Curtain boards
The depth of the curtain board will vary depending on the nature of the hazards within an occupancy, but should not be less than 20% of the ceiling height. Curtain boards should be spaced so that they are not farther apart than eight times the ceiling height.
Page 141
Vertical boards, fire resistive half walls, that extend down from the underside of the roof of some commercial buildings and are intended to limit the spread of fire, heat, smoke and fire gases.
Curtain boards
Page 141
Theaters are required to have smoke vents:
Above the stage
Page 141
The electrical force that causes a charge (electrons) to move through a conductor. Sometimes called the electro motive force.
Voltage
Page 142
High-voltage equipment is defined as operating at____volts or higher; low-voltage equipment operates at less than____volts.
600
Page 142
Transformers are used to:
Convert high-voltage electricity, as supplied by the electric utility service, to an appropriate voltage for use in the building.
Page 142
Transformers generate heat, and have a method that cools them. The two most common cooling message used are:
Air and oil
Air cooled transformers, also called dry transformers, use the surrounding air to cool the unit unit through fins and heat sinks installed on the body of the transformer.
Page 142
Many new buildings are now supplied by the electric utility with______volt services, which carry the same amount of energy in smaller wire and conduit when compared to traditional______volt services.
480/277
120/240
The electricity is used at 480V by HVAC equipment, refrigeration, and other motors; and at 277V by light fixture ballasts.
Page 143
Nonconductor of direct electrical current. Term usually applied to tools that are used to handle energized electrical wires or equipment.
Dielectric
Page 143
When transformers are inside, the transformer rooms or vaults are required by code code to be enclosed in a___hour fire rated construction if not protected by automatic sprinklers, or___hour fire rated construction if they are protected by sprinklers.
3
1
Page 143
Some power utility companies may not allow sprinkler protection for their equipment. In these instances, utilities may permit a______system. Fires involving electrical equipment usually denergize the equipment early in the event.
Carbon dioxide
Page 143
Back up power supplies for building systems dependent on electrical power may consist of:
Generators
Batteries
Or a combination of both
Page 143
Buildings that are required to have smoke management systems, are also required to have:
Emergency backup generator systems
Page 144
Auxiliary electrical power generating device.
A generator
Generators may be either permanent or portable
Portable generators are powered by a small gasoline or diesel engine and generally have 110 and or 220 V capacities
Page 144
At a minimum, the generator will need to supply the required:
Life safety systems plus critical needs of the occupancy.
In a hospital, for example, power is required at all times for life-support systems and monitoring equipment.
Page 144
Code specify the minimum required fuel storage for diesel or gasoline driven generators. The amounts are stated in terms of the expected duration of operations which may vary from___to___hours. Operational requirements for hospitals and other critical facilities, however, maybe up to___hours or longer.
2-8
48
When generators are located in buildings current codes require that the generator and the main fuel storage be installed in separate fire rated rooms.
Page 144
An exception to the fuel storage separation is a __________ located in the same room or mounted directly on the generator. This Tank is typically limited by fire codes to 60 gallons for diesel fuel.
Day Tank
Day tanks are usually kept full by pumping fuel from the main tank.
Page 144
Emergency power supplies that require batteries commonly use what type of batteries?
Lead acid type storage batteries
Lead acid batteries contain Sulfuric acid and lead. The sulfuric acid is hazardous to humans: skin contact causes injury and inhalation of the acid vapors can cause serious injury or death.
Page 144
Sulfuric acid reacts with the other chemicals and can cause a fire through:
Chemical chain reaction
The batteries can undergo unusual electro chemical reactions such as a thermal runaway or a battery fire, which may require an emergency response.
Page 145
The metallic lead and batteries is a:
Toxic heavy-metal
Page 145
Lead acid batteries have many different names that include the following:
Wet cell
Gel cell
Starved electrolyte cell
Sealed cell
Maintenance free cell
Flooded cell
The presence of lead acid batteries should be documented during pre-fire incident planning.
Page 145
WARNING Standard firefighting personal protective gear is not designed to protect the wearer against acid exposure. Walking, crawling, or falling into an acid pool can result in serious injury.
No answer for this card
Pg 145
Hey building consists of the exterior____and the interior____. This inner portion contains the usable space to satisfy the occupant use intended for the building.
Shell
Core
Pg 146
Wood is never dimensionally _____. In addition, weather condition can change the _____ and _____ and wood does not shrink or swell uniformly.
True
size and shape
Wood can also have such defects as ______, ______, _______, ______ , _______, and _______.
Knots knotholes decay inset damage splits warping
The strength of wood varies significantly with _____ , ______, and direction of load with _______________.
species
grade
respect to grain
In fact , on the basis of strength to unit weight, wood has a tensile strength comparable to _________.
steel
The allowable tensile strength of wood is about ________
700 psi
The strength of wood is also affected by its moisture content.
Through drying the wood begins to shrink in size and ______ in strength
increase
Most structural lumber has a moisture content of _____% or less
19
Lumber can be defined as lengths of squared wood ( also known as ________ _____) used for construction
Also( lumber - a length of wood cut and prepared for use in construction)
dimensional wood
Lumber is graded for both _______ and _______.
The higher the grade the more costly
Only a few key structural columns or beams may require high structural grade.
strength
appearance
A large variety of wood products is available for use in the constructions industry. Name some specific forms
Solid lumber laminated wood members structural composite lumber panels Manufactured components
Boards have a nominal thickness of ___ inches or less
Dimensional lumber has a nominal thickness of ___ to ___ inches or more.
Timbers have a nominal thickness of ___ inches or more
2
2 to 4
5
Dimensional lumber is available in lengths from ____ to _____ ft in 2 foot increments. In addition members use as rafters can be supplied in lengths up to ____ ft
8 to 18
24
The actual dimension of a finished piece of wood will be _____ than the nominal dimension.
Smaller
2x4 will be 1 1/2 x 3 1/2
Laminated wood members are produced by joining _________ of wood with ______
flat strips
glue
The advantage to producing laminated pieced of wood are that _____ and _____ can be produced that are not available from _____ cut from logs
size and shape
solid pieces
Glulam beams can be formed into ______ or given varying _____ sections
( Glulam - short for glue laminated structural member)
curves
Cross
Laminated members can be produced in depths ranging from ____ to ____ inches
3 to 75 inches
Three types of joints can be used to join laminated members end to end:
( these joints are also used in standard lumber)
Butt joint - easy to produce but cannot be used when tensile strength forces are to be transmitted through the beam
Scarf joint - can be used to transmit tensile strength
Finger joint - can be used to transmit tensile strength
Surface layer of attractive material laid over a base of common material
Veneer
Wood sheet product made from several thin veneer layers that are sliced fro logs and glued together
Plywood
Structural composite lumber (SCL)
These products allow the use of the outer fibers of a log as well as the inner portions traditionally used. These products uncle _______, ________ and ______
LVL - Laminated veneer lumber
PSL - Parallel strand lumber
LSL - laminated strand lumber
LVL is produced by peeling sheets of veneer from the ______________
outer portions of a log
Finds application in I joist and beam sections
PSL is made from the outermost veneers peeled from a log that are not as uniform as those used in LVL.
PSL is the _____ of the three SCL products and can be used for _____ loaded columns and ____ spans
strongest
heavily
long
LSL is produced by taking long strands of wood up to ____ inches in length and bonding them with resin in a steam pressing process.
LSL is usually used in ______ beams and columns
12
short span
Wood panel products include 4 types
plywood
nonveneered panels
sandwich and composite panels
Plywood is produced in standard sheet measuring
4 x 8
Construction material made of many small wooden pieces ( strands) bonded together to form sheets, similar to plywood
Oriented Strand Board ( OSB)
Non veneered products include:
Oriented strand board
Particle board
Wafer board
Particle board is often referred as :
Flakeboard
chipboard
shavings board
Produced with parallel external face veneers bonded to a core of reconstituted fibers
Composite panels
Structural insulated panels are used when __________ is desired
energy efficiency
Wood panel products are graded for their _________ and their ______ durability.
A grade stamp appears on the back of the structural panel that indicates its intended structural suitability.
structural use
exposure
Metal or wooden plates used to connect and strengthen the intersections of metal and wood truss components into a load bearing unit
Gusset plates
Steel framing is found in buildings of all heights and is used in both __________ and _________ buildings. Steel is used in applications varying from ________ and _____ to door frames and nails.
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fire-resistive and non-fire resistive
heavy beams
columns
The firefighter must understand that the behavior of steel under fire conditions depends on the ___ of the steel and the degree of ___ ____ provided.
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mass
fire resistance
Wood trusses are categorized as ____ - _____ trusses, _______, or _______ trusses
light frame
heavy timber
split ring
One serious and fundamental drawback to wood as a building material is its ________
combustibility
Ignition point for wood are difficult to measure precisely because the ignition temperature of wood is affected by such variables as the following
Density of wood Size and form of wood moisture content rate of heating nature of the heating source air supply
Thermal or chemical decomposition of fuel ( matter) because of heat that generally results in the lowered ignition temperature of the material. The pre ignition combustion phase of burning during which heat energy is absorbed by fuel, which in turn gives off flammable tars, pitches, and gases.
Pyrolisis
Pyrolysis of wood releases combustible gases and leaves a charred suface
Capable of being shaped, bent, or drawn out.
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Ductile
Ignition point for wood are difficult to measure precisely because the ignition temperature of wood is affected by such variables as the following
Density of wood Size and form of wood moisture content rate of heating nature of the heating source air supply
Pyrolysis of wood begins at approximately ________ degrees F ( _____ degrees C)
392
200
The ratio of the surface area of the fuel to the mass of the fuel
Surface to mass ratio
The rolling process consists of repeatedly passing ingots of steel heated to ________ between large rollers until the desired shape is achieved.
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* ingots: steel oblong in shape
2,200°F
Thermal or chemical decomposition of fuel ( matter) because of heat that generally results in the lowered ignition temperature of the material. The pre ignition combustion phase of burning during which heat energy is absorbed by fuel, which in turn gives off flammable tars, pitches, and gases.
Pyrolisis
Pyrolysis of wood releases combustible gases and leaves a charred suface
The two main methods of fire retardant treatment are __________ and ________
Pressure impregnatation
surface coating
Surface coating is used primarily to reduce the surface burning of wood
Steel possesses two inherent disadvantages:
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- Tendency to rust when exposed to air and moisture
* Loss of strength when exposed to the heat of a fire
Pyrolysis of wood begins at approximately ________ degrees F ( _____ degrees C)
392
200
The fires typically encountered by fire- fighters do not create temperatures hot enough to ____ _____.
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melt steel
Note that at a temperature of around 1,000°F , the yield point of the steel has dropped from ______ to ____ _______. At ____°F , the yield point has dropped to approximately 10,000 psi a loss in strength of approximately ___ percent.
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36,000 psi to approximately 18,000 psi
1,200
72
Because temperatures in excess of 1,200°F are regularly encountered in fires, failure of _____ steel to a greater or lesser degree can be anticipated.
unprotected
Wood like product produced from wood fiber and polyethylene or PVC
Thermoplastic lumber
Main application is outside decks and railings
It is a combustible product with a flame spread rating of 80
Although steel is a good conductor of heat, it is also a very heavy material, having a density of around ____ __ per cubic feet.
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490 pounds
Members such as ____ ___or ____ _____ can be expected to fail early when exposed to a fire. By contrast, massive ___ ___ and _____ frequently remain in place under severe fire exposure.
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bar joists or slender trusses
steel beams and girders
Finally, the steel breaks when the “_____ ____” is reached. Because excessive deformation of steel is undesirable, the maximum stress that develops within steel members under conditions of loading must be kept below the ____ ____.
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ultimate stress
yield point
The load that steel members are supporting also affects the behavior of steel because the loads produce the _______ in the steel. When ______ _______ exist in the steel, it must be heated to a higher temperature for the ____ ____ to be reached.
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stresses
lower stresses
yield point
When individual steel members are ____ _____ or _____ into a large structural system, they are better able to resist failure than if they are simply supported.
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*The way steel members are attached affects their behavior during a fire.
rigidly welded or bolted
Most fire retardant material operate by:
Accelerating the formation of charring in the wood when wood is exposed to heat.
In fire situations, the heating of steel or other materials does not occur in a ____ ____.
____ ____ columns and staircases can still be found in older buildings.
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uniform manner
Cast iron
Today cast iron has been completely displaced by steel. Because cast iron is a ____ material, it tends to fail by fracturing from impact loading rather than by yielding as in the case of steel.
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brittle
Wood like product produced from wood fiber and polyethylene or PVC
Thermoplastic lumber
Main application is outside decks and railings
It is a combustible product with a flame spread rating of 80
Steel structural shapes can be used to construct a frame of ______, _____ and ______. Steel also can be used in heavy or lightweight trusses to support _____ and _____.
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columns, beams, and girders
roofs and floors
___ ____ steel studs are being used to construct exterior walls.
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Cold-rolled
Because steel is a strong but very dense material, it is not efficient to use it in the form of _____ ______ or ____ as is done with other materials such as wood or concrete. Steel in sheet form, however, is used for applications such as _____ _____ and _____ ______ ____. The exterior envelope of a steel-frame building can consist of ______, _______, and ______.
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solid slabs or panels
floor decking and exterior curtain walls
concrete, masonry, or glass
Beams and columns in steel-frame buildings are connected by one of two methods: ______ or ______. _______ was used in the first half of the 20th century but is not practical to use today.
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bolting or welding
Riveting
The design of the connections in steel-frame buildings is extremely important. The connection of a ______ and ____ not only transfers the loads between members but also determines the of the basic structure.
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beam to a column
rigidity
Steel loses its strength gradually as its temperature increases. The speed with which unprotected steel fails when it is exposed to a fire depends on several factors, including the following:
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- Mass of the steel members
- Intensity of the exposing fire
- Load supported by the steel
- Type of connections used to join the steel members
- Type of steel
Although steel is a good conductor of heat, it is also a very heavy material, having a density of around ____ __per cubic feet.
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490 pounds
Because the mass of steel requires a large amount of heat to raise its temperature, the _____ of a fire directly affects the behavior of steel. In a structure with a light fuel load, unprotected steel may not fail if the fire does not supply enough _____ _____.
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intensity
thermal energy
When individual steel members are ____ _____ or _____ into a large structural system, they are better able to resist failure than if they are simply supported.
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rigidly welded or bolted
The amount of expansion for slender members, such as beams and columns, can be determined through a property known as the ___ _____ of ___ ___.
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linear coefficient of thermal expansion
In a semi-rigid frame:
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the connections are not completely rigid but possess enough rigidity to provide some diagonal support to the structure.
Beam and girder steel frames can be classified as ____, ____, or _______.
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rigid, simple, or semi-rigid
The connections between the beams and the columns are designed to resist the bending forces resulting from the supported loads and lateral forces. This is know as:
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rigid-frame connection
In a rigid-frame connection, ______ ______ exists between the beam and the column so that ___ ____ occurs in the angle between the beam and the column as the loads are applied.
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sufficient rigidity
no change
In the case of a simple frame:
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the joints are designed primarily to support a vertical force.
A degree of angular change between beams and columns can occur if some form of diagonal bracing is not provided . Steel beams and trusses are frequently supported by a masonry wall. These designs are examples of .
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simply supported systems and simple frame connection
____ _____ ____ are mass produced and are available with depths of up to __ feet and span up to ___ feet. However, they are more frequently found with depths less than __ feet and spans of ___ feet.
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Open web joists 6 144 2 40
The top and bottom chords of a ___ ____ can be made from two angles, two bars, or a T-shaped member. The diagonal members can be made from ___ ____ welded to the top and bottom chords or they can be a continuous ____ ____ bent back and forth and welded to the chords.
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web joist
flat bars
round bar
_____ _______ provide a structural member that can carry loads across greater spans more economically than beams can. _____ ______ can be fabricated in a variety of shapes to meet specific applications.
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Steel trusses
When round bars are used for the diagonal members, the open web truss is known as a
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bar joist
*The bar joist is a common type of open web steel joist.
Two commonly encountered applications of the basic steel truss are:
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open web joist and the joist girder
Bar Joist
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Open web truss constructed entirely of steel, with steel bars used as the web members
When round bars are used for the diagonal members, the open web truss is known as a
bar joist
Bar joists are frequently used in closely spaced configurations for the support of _____ and _____.
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floors or roof decks
Steel rigid-frame buildings with inclined (or gabled) roofs are widely used for the construction of :
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one-story industrial buildings, farm buildings, and a variety of other applications.
____ ____ are used to support roofs on buildings where large unobstructed floors are needed. These include occupancies such as:
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Steel arches
gymnasiums and convention halls
The top of the rigid frame is known as the ____ and the points where the inclined members intersect the vertical members are known as the ______. The crown and the knees are designed as ____ _____ with __ _____ between members. The vertical members may or may not be rigidly connected to the foundations depending on anticipated ____ _____.
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crown knees rigid joints no rotation wind loads
____ ______ ___ structures must be braced diagonally to prevent deflections in the direction _____ _____ _______ of the frame sections. This is accomplished by providing diagonal ______ ______ in the plane of the roof and in the vertical plane of the walls between the rigid frame sections.
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Gable roof rigid-frame
perpendicular to the plane
cross-members
Steel arches can be constructed to span distances in excess of ____ feet.
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300
Steel arches can be designed as either _____ or _____.
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girder arches or trussed arches
_____ _____ and _____ are sometimes used in suspension systems to support roofs. ______ _______ ______ can provide large unobstructed areas similar to arches without the reduction in vertical clearance at the sides of a building that occurs with an arch.
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Steel rods and cables
Suspension roof systems
Steel suspension systems make some unique designs possible. One useful application of a suspension system ____ ____.
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cantilever roof
The most common column cross-sections are the ____ ______, ______ and the _________ similar to the cross section of an I-beam
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hollow cylinder,
the rectangular tube
wide flange shape
The possibility of buckling in an individual column is a function of its ______, its ____ _____, and the method by which the column is supported at its ______ and _______.
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length
cross-section
top and bottom
A property of a given column, known as its “____ ____” is used in combination with the condition of the column end to determine the load that can be safely supported without buckling.
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slenderness ratio
The _____ the numerical value of the slenderness ratio, the more likely it is that ______ will occur. In general, columns used for structural support in buildings should not have a slenderness ratio greater than ____.
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higher
buckling
120
In evaluating a given design, the slenderness ratio is modified by the manner in which the:
Columns that are erected so they cannot rotate at their ends have _____ ________ to buckle than columns that are free to rotate at their ends.
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ends are attached to the rest of the structure
less tendency
The stability of columns is critical to the structural integrity of buildings under circumstances such as:
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earthquakes, impact, and/or the shifting of a foundation
There are three methods by which steel structural members can be used to support floors in multistory buildings. These include:
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open web joists (bar joists) or trusses, steel beams, and light-gauge steel joists.
A very common floor design in steel-frame buildings uses a
______ _______ with a minimum thickness of ___ ___ supported by corrugated steel decking. The corrugated steel is, in turn, supported by ____ ____ ____. The steel joists can be supported by steel beams or directly supported on a ____ _______. The open web joists can also be used to support ___ ____ panels or wood decking.
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lightweight concrete 2 inches open-web steel joists masonry wall precast concrete
Where floor loads or spans dictate, ___ _____ are used to support flooring instead of the lighter open-web joists.
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steel beams
The ___ ____ ____ are produced from cold-rolled steel and are available in several cross-sections. It can also be used to support metal decks or wood panel flooring systems.
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light-gauge joists
The steel joists are produced with depths of ___ to ___ inches and can be spaced ___ to ____inches apart depending on the span and the load to be supported.
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6 to 12
16 to 48
In general, although unprotected steel is not fire-resistive, the greater the mass of a steel member, the:
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less likely it is to fail in a fire
Of particular importance to firefighters are the additional strength provided by ______ _________ and the weakness of ____ _________ construction.
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certain connections
lighter-weight
____ _______ are frequently found intact after a fire even after other parts of a frame have failed. In contrast, a ____ _____ ____ may fail under fire conditions as loads shift.
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*Mass of Steel.
Rigid connections
simply supported beam
Metal or wooden plates used to connect and strengthen the intersections of metal or wooden truss components roof or floor components into a load-bearing unit.
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Gusset Plates
Although the primary purpose of a gusset plate is to strengthen the _________, the gusset plate also increases the steel mass at the connection, thereby decreasing its _____ of _____.
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connection
possibility of failure
In gabled rigid-frame structures the knee joint between the _____ and the ______ will be the strongest part of the frame and the ____ _____ ___ ___.
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roof and the wall
last part to fail
In a structure with a large beam and girder frame made of repeating sections, the adjacent sections of the frame tend to be mutually supporting. These adjacent sections provide a degree of __________ to the overall system that reinforces the structure’s strength.
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redundancy
If steel trusses are constructed with ____ _____ and diagonal members and are simply supported on a bearing _____ or ______, they can easily ____ or ______ under fire conditions. As in the case of steel beams, failure will not occur unless the trusses are exposed to a:
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slender chords
wall or beam
fail and collapse
large amount of heat
The light-gauge steel sheeting used in floor systems and in roofs has a:
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large surface area compared to its mass
In order to be used in fire- resistive buildings, steel must be made more ____ ___.
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fire-resistive
A steel column encased in 3 inches of concrete with a ______ aggregate would have a fire resistance of ____
hours. Structural designers prefer to use ________ materials for the protection of steel.
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*. This method is effective but increases the weight and therefore the cost of a structure
siliceous
four
lighter-weight
In contemporary practice the most commonly used insulating materials are:
Lightweight concrete can also be used because it is a durable material. Some of these insulating materials are applied by spraying and are known collectively as:
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gypsum, spray-applied materials, and intumescent coatings
spray-applied fire resistive materials (SFRMs).
Widely used interior finish material. Consists of a core of calcined gypsum, starch, water, and other additives that are sandwiched between two paper faces.
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Gypsum Board
Also known as gypsum wallboard, plasterboard, and drywall
Gypsum board is available as _____ and ______.
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regular or type X.
Regular gypsum board has:
Type X gypsum board:
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no special additives to enhance its fire resistance, although it will provide some degree of fire protection
contains additives to increase its fire resistance and is usually required where a specified fire resistance is desired
The value of gypsum as an insulating material arises in part from the water that is _______ combined within the material. Gypsum consists of approximately ___ percent entrapped water. This water content enhances gypsum’s performance as a fire-insulating material.
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chemically
21
The water turns to steam upon exposure to fire and, in doing so, ____ _____ _____. This process is known as ________ Once the moisture has been driven off, the remaining gypsum will act as an insulating material.
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absorbs the heat
calcination
Gypsum can be used to protect both columns and beams, providing fire resistance ratings from ___ to ___ hours. Gypsum board is used in multiple layers to attain higher fire resistance ratings.
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one to four
The most commonly used SFRMs are mineral fiber or expanded aggregate coatings such as _____ and _____. The degree of fire resistance provided will depend not only on the material but also on the ______ of the _______ .
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vermiculite and perlite
thickness of the application
The applied fireproofing can vary from ___ to ___ inches to produce a fire-resistive rating of ___ to ____ hours.
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7/8 to 1 7/8
1 to 4
___ _____ mineral fiber materials are relatively soft and can be easily dislodged from the steel. They are not suitable for ____ ____. High-density SFRMs that use magnesium oxychloride have densities rang- ing from ___ to ___ lb/cu ft.
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Low-density
exterior use
40 to 80
Containing or composed of cement. Has cementlike characteristics.
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Cementitious
Cementitious materials are produced in various formulations. Ingredients can include:
Some manufacturers use:
The cementitious materials have densities varying from ___ to ___ lb/cu ft.
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Portland cement, gypsum, perlite, and vermiculite
magnesium oxychloride, or oxysulfate, calcium aluminate, phosphate, or ammonium sulfate.
15 to 50
The surface to which the ____ is applied must be clean of oil, dirt, loose paint, and any other substance that would prevent good adhesion.
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SFRM
*Asbestos has not been used in SRFMs since the 1970’s.
It is very important that ____ and _____ be installed before application of the SFRM.
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supports and hangers
Coating or paintlike product that expands when exposed to the heat of a fire to create an insulating barrier that protects the material underneath. The coating material will expand to ___ to ___ times its original volume.
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intumescent Coating
15 to 30
____ ______ function in a manner similar to intumescent coatings except they are based on more complex organic materials and their reaction to heat is more complete.
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Mastic coatings
______ _____ are applied as a paint. They have an applied thickness of ____ to ___ inches which is less than the thickness of the spray-applied materials.
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Intumescent coatings
0.03 to 0.4
Both intumescent and mastic coatings are relatively expensive. Their advantages include:
In addition they are frequently the most aesthetically pleasing.
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lighter weight, durable surfaces, and good adhesion
Usually refers to a suspended, insulating ceiling tile system.
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Membrane Ceiling
Membrane ceiling is:
The most common method is to use ___ ____ in a steel framework suspended by wires.
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A very commonly used method of protecting a steel floor or roof assembly.
mineral tiles
The mineral tiles are a lightweight insulating material and usually contain ______ for ______ purposes. .
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*Gypsum panels are also used for membrane ceilings
perforations for acoustical
Membrane ceiling are frequently used in ____ ____ ____ . The use of a membrane ceiling can provide a floor and ceiling assembly or a ceiling and roof assembly with a fire rating of ____ to ____ hours depending on the specific details of the installation.
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steel framing systems
one to three
Ceiling materials are never rated ________ . A ceiling is always rated as part of a ____ and ______ , so it is not accurate to speak of the fire resistance of a ceiling alone.
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independently
floor and ceiling assembly
Any removal or penetration of the ceiling material reduces or even eliminates the ____ _____ of the total assembly.
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fire resistance
Membrane ceilings are popular, in part, because building services such as ____, ______, and _________, can be concealed above the ceiling.
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electrical wiring, automatic sprinkler piping and ventilation ducts
It may be necessary to provide ______ ______ on the back of lighting fixtures and to equip ventilation ducts with fire dampers so fire does not penetrate through the opening.
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additional insulation
Although building codes specify the degree of fire resistance required for various structural members, they do permit reductions under certain circumstances. Several examples are as follows:
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- Eliminating the fire-resistance rating for roof construction located more than 20 feet (6.6 m) above the floor below for some occupancies
- Allowing a reduction of the required fire resistance when an automatic sprinkler system is provided that is not otherwise required by the provisions of the code
Protected steel is one of the two common methods of providing fire-resistive construction, such as ___ ____ and ____. The other method is rein-forced concrete
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Type IA and IB and Type IIA
Notch, hole or space cut into a piece of timber to receive the projecting part (tenon)of another piece of timber
Mortise
Projecting member in a piece of wood or other material for insertion into a mortise to make a joint
tenon
From the stand point if the IC , the values needed for an analytical solution are simply not available in the course of an event (fire). The conditions of __________, __________ , and __________ are not precisely known in the middle of a fire fighting operation. Therefore , the structural integrity of heavy timber framing in an actual fire situation must always be viewed ___________.
fire loading
actual fire growth
timber dimensions
conservitavely
In the design of connections for heavy timber construction, the engineer must take into account factors that are unique to wood. These include ;
- Specific gravity of wood
- shrinkage of the wood
- position of the fasteners, such as bolts, relative to the grain of the wood
- relative size of the wood members and fasteners
Older timber construction made use of a type of joint known as _________________
Mortise and Tenon joint
This method is highly labor intensive and therefore costly
United States Department of Agriculture indicates that heat of a fire has essentially _____________ on the adhesives that are used in contemporary Glulam boards
No effect
Post and beam framing is a form of wood frame construction in which the columns ( termed the posts) and beams are of dimensions less than those used in ___________ framing but greater than those used in _____________ construction. The post are usually _______inches or _______ inches. The post are usually spaced ___ to ___ ft apart
heavy timber
light frame
4x4
6x6
4 to 12
The most popular form of wood framing is known as ___________ frame construction
Light wood
The two basic types of light wood framing are _______ and ______ framing
balloon framing
Platform framing
Lightwood framing makes use of ___ inch nominal lumber such as _____ or _____
2
2x4 or 2x8
Type of structural framing used in some single story and multistory wood frame buildings wherein the studs are continuos from the foundation to the roof. There may be no fire stops between the wood.
Balloon fram construction
The term balloon frame came from ____ appearance of the thin, closely spaced studs compared to earlier timber construction
fragile
Balloon framing has not ben widely used since the ______, although many balloon frame buildings remain
1920’s
Type of framing in which each floor is built as a separate platform and the studs are not continuous beyond each floor. Also called Western frame construction
Platform frame construction
Solid materials, such as wood blocks, used to prevent or limit the vertical and horizontal spread of fire and the products of combustion in hollow walls or floors
Fire stop
Dividers hung from the ceiling in large open areas that are designed to minimize the mushrooming effects of heat and smoke. Also called curtain boards
Draft stop
The extent to which the presence of a form insulation in a wood frame wall will increase fire spread within a wall depends on the _____________
existence of an air space
Noncombustible material can be used for insulation. These include _______ and ______ in the form batts, blankets or fiber glass
glass wool and rock wool
Insulation can also take the form of loose fill material such as __________, ________, _______ and ________
granulated rock wool
granulated cork
mineral wool
glass wool
When the area to be enclosed by the roof is circular, a dome roof can be used. A dome can’t be thought of as an arch rotated
360°
Curved roofs are most frequently supported by
Arches and bowstring trusses
P308
Curved roof surfaces take their form from the
Structural system used to support them
The combustibility of a siding material can affect fire behavior of a building in two ways :
through the exterior communication of fire from window and door openings
being ignited by exposing fire
One frequently used rule to identify a brick veneer wood frame building from a load bearing brick wall is :
every sixth course of brick is a header course with the ends of the brick facing out (load bearing brick wall)
pg223
The interior walls of wood frame buildings can be left exposed with no interior finish. Such buildings are classified as
type 5 B
When the structural framing of a wood frame structure , including the floor and roof construction, is provided with protection to achieve a 1 hour fire resistance rating, the building can be classified as
Type 5 A
Typically reached with the use of 5/8 inch gypsum board
Ignition resistant construction should not be confused with the _________ construction. Ignition resistant construction is intended to decrease the vulnerability of structures to exposures from __________
fire resistive
Wildland fires
Requirements for ignitions resistant construction include features such as fire resistant _________ to protect against falling embers. They also require exterior wall that is either ________ or that has __________ when exposed from the outside
roof coverings
noncombustible
1 hour fire resistive rating
What would be the issue if a roof did not have a slope?
If the roof is not constructed with a method for drainage, pools of water will form, which leads to early deterioration. Therefore, many flat roofs are provided with a slight slope, typically from front to rear to facilitate drainage
What are the categories of roof slopes?
Low slope – have a slope of up to 3 to 12, meaning for each 12 units of horizontal dimension the roof slopes upward three units
Medium to high slope roofs have slopes of 4/12 to 12/12 (a slope of 12/12 is a 45 degree angle)
Consists of two inclined surfaces that meet at their high side to form a ridge
Gable roof
Slopes in four directions and has a degree of slope similar to the gable roof
Hip roof
Slopes in two directions, but there will be a break in the slope on each side.
Gambrel roof
A roof that has a break and the slope on all four sides.
This style forms a projection beyond the building wall that creates a concealed space through which a fire can communicate
Mansard roof
A roof style that slopes in two directions basically two shed roofs that meet at their low eaves
The butterfly roof
Ingredients or chemicals added to concrete mix to produce concrete with specific characteristics.
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admixture
The density of concrete can be reduced by using a lighter-weight aggregate such as ___ or ____. An _______ known as a superplasticizer can be used to produce a mixture that flows more freely.
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shale or clinker
admixture
Concrete types include the following:
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*Coloring can also be added to concrete for aesthetic or safety reasons, such as coloring concrete when it is placed over buried electrical cables.
- Ordinary stone concrete
- High early-strength concrete
- Structural lightweight concrete
- Expansive concrete
- Insulating lightweight concrete
- Water-permeable concrete
- Gypsum concrete
Safety concerns the pitch of a roof
A pitched roof is designed to Shedwater and snow. The pitch of the roof presents a major hazard to firefighters because the steepness of the roof result in a lack of secure footing. This hazard is increased when the roof is wet or covered with ice but also exists when the roof is dry because of the loose or regular texture of some roof coverings
What is a lamella arch?
Special form of arched roof that is constructed from short pieces of wood known as the melons. Lamellas vary from 2 x 8” to 3 x 16 and lengths varying from 8 to 14 feet.
How and with what are the short Lamellas bolted together with
Bolted together in a diagonal pattern with a special plate known as a Lamella washer
The lamella technique can be adopted to form a dome as well as
An arch
The lamella Roof has been used for what types of occupancies?
Gymnasiums, exhibition halls, and auditoriums
What is a Dome created using spherical triangulation?
A geodesic dome
Triangles are arranged in three dimensions to form a nearly spherical surface
when working on the roof, firefighters should view any indication of advanced or heavy fire development as a warning sign that
The roof is weakening
What are the common methods used to support flat roofs?
The simplest system uses ordinary would joists supported at either end by a load bearing wall
- The wood joists function as beams to support the roof deck just as for beams for a four system.
- Solid or laminated beams and columns may be used to support the wood roof joists
- In modern practice box beams and I-beams manufactured from plywood and woodtruss joists are often used to support flat roofs
Like masonry, concrete is strong in ____ but weaker in _______. The ultimate compressive strength can be varied from _______ to _____ with the allowable stress used in design reduced by a factor of safety.
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compression
tension
2,500 psi to 6,000 psi
• The techniques that are used to reinforce concrete are:
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- Ordinary reinforcing
* Prestressing reinforcing (pretensioning or post-tensioning)
With ordinary reinforcing:
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steel bars are placed in the formwork and the wet concrete is placed in the formwork around the bars
It is the job of the ______ _______ to specify the number of reinforcing bars to be used, their size (diameter), and the depth of concrete cover around the bars. The diameters of standard-size reinforcing bars vary from ______ to _________.
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design engineer
.375 inches to 2.257 inches
The vertical reinforcing bars are known as _______ and are provided to resist the ______ _______.
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stirrups
diagonal tension
Concrete beams are frequently cast in the shape of a ___. The wider cross-sectional area at the top of the tee beam permits the concrete to support a ____ _____. At the same time, it reduces the dead load that would result with a simple rectangular beam. Reinforcing steel is placed in the _____ of the tee to resist the tensile force.
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tee
greater load
bottom
Although the primary function of placing reinforcing steel in concrete is to resist ____ ____, the steel can also be used to support some of the ________ forces.
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tensile forces
compressive
The steel bars support some of the compressive load and also resist bending forces in the column from such sources as _____ ____ and ______.
wind load and settling
A ___ ____ concrete beam is a more efficient and _________ design because the concrete in the shaded area is eliminated.
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tee-shaped
lightweight
The compressive forces in a column could be great enough to cause the ___ ____ ____ to buckle even though they are imbedded in the concrete. To avoid possible buckling, ____ ____ is provided around the vertical bars.
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steel reinforcing bars
lateral reinforcing
The ______ of the steel creates compressive stresses in the concrete that counteract the tensile stresses that result when the loads are applied.
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preloading
The prestressing process requires large loads to be applied to the concrete along the ___ of the _____. These loads can result in the _______ of the concrete over time.
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axis of the beam
shortening
There are two methods of prestressing concrete. These are _______ and _________. Both processes use the same basic materials.
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pretensioning and postensioning
Steel strands are stretched between anchors producing a tensile force in the steel. Concrete is then placed around the steel strands and allowed to harden.
Pretensioned reinforcing
When the steel strands are released, the concrete member usually takes on a slight _____ ______.
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upward deflection
*As loads are applied to the pretensioned member, the deflection usually disappears and the member becomes flat
Technique used in post-tensioned concrete. Reinforcing steel in the concrete is tensioned after the concrete has hardened.
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Post-tensioned reinforcing
Roof designed to provide light and ventilation.
- These roofs were once very commonly used on factory buildings.
- The raised central section of the roof extends several feet above the surrounding roof surface
Monitor roof
Modern ventilation and lighting systems have largely eliminated the need for what types of roofs?
Monitor and sawtooth roofs
- Roof that was once commonly used for industrial buildings for light and ventilation.
- Ideally the glass vertical sections should face north because the Northern light is more constant during the day and the glare of the sun can be avoided
Sawtooth roof
As a general rule, reinforcing steel should not be cut in the course of fire fighting operations unless it is necessary to _____ _____ _____.
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rescue trapped victims
The reinforcing steel bars support ____ _____. Furthermore, the forces that are produced in the prestressing process remain locked in the steel for the ___ of the _____.
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large loads
life of the assembly
Cutting through reinforcing steel with a saw or torch is particularly dangerous in _______ concrete because the steel is not bonded to the concrete. The steel strands are stretched like giant ____ _____. If they are cut, they are likely to spring out of the concrete, injuring emergency responders.
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post-tensioned
rubber bands
A common type of concrete construction. Refers to concrete that is poured into forms as a liquid and assumes the shape of the form in the position and location it will be used.
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Cast-in-Place Concrete
Concrete can be either cast in ____ or _____.
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place or precast
Precast concrete is placed in:
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forms and cured at a precasting plant away from the job site.
*Precast concrete structural members are then transported to the job site.
Cast-in-place concrete does not develop its design strength until
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after it has been placed in the location where it will be used.
Great care must be exercised in the ____, _____, and ____ of concrete to ensure good quality.
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mixing, placing, and curing
Using sand from an ocean beach as a shortcut introduces salt into the concrete. Eventually the salt will cause _______ and _______ of the reinforcing steel. If the concrete is vibrated excessively as it is placed in the forms, ________ of the aggregate results.
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corrosion and deterioration
segregation *
*The heavy coarse aggregate settles at the bottom of the mixture and the water and cement rise to the top
The single most important factor in determining the ultimate strength of concrete is the:
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water-to-cement ratio
Water is a necessary ingredient in concrete because it reacts with the cement powder in the _____ ______. An amount of water greater than required for curing is added to the concrete mix to increase its ________ as it is placed in the forms. Some of this excess moisture evaporates and leaves _____ ______ in the hardened concrete. A portion of the excess moisture remains locked in the concrete.
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hydration process
workability
microscopic voids
The presence of excess moisture in the concrete also produces ______ in the concrete due to freezing conditions or the heat of a fire.
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spalling
When the concrete arrives at the job site, its quality is checked by administering a test known as a ____ ___.
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slump test
The slump test is used to check the ______ content of concrete by measuring the amount that a small, _____ ______ of the concrete settles or “slumps” after it is removed from a standard-sized test mold.
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moisture
cone-shaped sample
Concrete with a high moisture content has a more liquid consistency and a ___ ____. Concrete with _____ ______ will fail the test and may be rejected by the structural engineer.
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greater slump
excessive slump
Another method of testing concrete is to make small test cylinders of a concrete batch and subject them to ________ testing. This method is accurate but has the disadvantage of requiring that the concrete be permitted to _____ before the results are known. This test would be very _____ if the concrete were ultimately found to be unsatisfactory.
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compression
harden
costly
Large cast-in-place structures cannot be cast in ___ ______. Construction joints unavoidably occur between successive pours. To provide for transfer of loads and forces from one placement to the next, the reinforcement steel will _____ the joints.
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one operation
overlap
Concrete buildings are constructed with structural systems that use bearing walls formed from cast-in-place concrete. However, a more typical design is to construct a concrete frame. The following are common cast-in-place structural systems:
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Flat slab
• Slab and beam
• Waffle construction
The _____ concrete frame is a simple system that consists of a concrete slab supported by concrete columns. The slab of concrete varies in thickness from __ to ___ inches
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flat-slab
6 to 12
In a building that will have heavy live loads, the area around the _______ is reinforced with additional concrete in the form of ____ _____ or _______ capitals. If the building will support light loads, this additional reinforcing is not necessary. The system then is known as a ___ ___.
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columns
drop panels
mushroom
flat plate
A ___ and ______ frame consists of a concrete slab supported by concrete beams. This framing system is extremely light weight and is best suited for buildings with light floor loads. Slabs in this type of construction can sometimes be as thin as ___ ____. Due to the ___ __, the concrete beams must be ____ _____ in order to provide adequate support. This spacing often gives an appearance similar to _____ ______ and is sometimes referred to as concrete joist construction.
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slab and beam 2 inches thin slab closely spaced wood joists
When the concrete beams run mainly in one direction, the framing is known as a ___ _____ _____ slab.
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one-way reinforced
The two-way framing system is used where:
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spans are short and floor loadings are high.
Buildings using slab and beam systems are often highly susceptible to fire damage due to their ___ ____.
________ of some sort is often necessary, especially when specific fire ratings must be achieved.
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thin nature
Fireproofing
Waffle construction derives its name from the waffle- like pattern of the ______ of the concrete slab. The pattern results from the placement of square forms over which the wet concrete is placed. This design provides ____ slab while eliminating the _______ of unnecessary concrete in the bottom half of the slab. _______ _____ placed in the bottom of the formwork provides reinforcement in two directions. Slabs of this type, therefore, are also known as ____ ____.
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bottom thicker weight Reinforcing steel two-way slabs
A poured concrete slab can be supported by ______ _____ ____ instead of concrete beams. If the assembly is intended for a Type I (fire-resistive) building the steel must be provided with some form of _______.
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structural steel beams
fireproofing
Method of building construction where the concrete building member is poured and set according to specification in a controlled environment and is then shipped to the construction site for use.
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Precast Concrete
An advantages to using precast concrete is
• Higher degree of quality control possible than with cast-in-place con- crete:
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— Precasting forms can be located in a sheltered environment not exposed to the weather
— A high degree of quality control can be exercised over the ingredients
— Mixing and pouring the concrete can be more mechanized and efficient., which may result in additional costs.
An advantages to using precast concrete is
Work can proceed more quickly at the job site:
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— Precasting is faster because there is no need to construct formwork at the job site.
— No need to wait for concrete to harden before work can proceed, as with cast-in-place concrete.
— No need to construct and remove forms
An advantages to using precast concrete is
• Precast concrete sandwich panels can be produced using a _______ ________ , which improves the _________ properties of the precast concrete.
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polystyrene core
insulating
A major disadvantage to using precast concrete is the need to _________ the finished components to the job site.
Transportation increases _____ and ____ the size of the shapes that can be precast.
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transport
costs
limits
Precast concrete buildings can be built using ____ ____ modular units but it is more common to assemble precast parts into a _______ for a building.
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whole precast
framework
Precast concrete slabs for floor systems can be cast in standard shapes that include:
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solid slabs, hollow-core slabs, single tee slabs, and double tee slabs
Solid slabs are used for short spans up to approximately ___ ___ , while the tee slabs can be used for spans up to __ ___ .
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30 feet
120 feet
Type of construction in which concrete wall sections (slabs) are cast on the concrete floor of the building and are then tilted up into the vertical position.
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tilt-Up Construction
Also known as Tilt- Slab Construction.
Tilt-up walls can support several types of roof including:
The integrity of the roof is critical under fire conditions. Failure of a roof can result in _____ _______ forces against the wall resulting in collapse.
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timber beams, precast slabs, steel beams, and steel trusses
outward horizontal
Precast structural elements are usually lighter than corresponding ___ __ ____ components. However, the use of precast concrete results in a loss of _______ that is inherent with cast-in-place concrete frames. In a precast concrete structure, the connections between the _____ _______ are a critical aspect of structural engineering.
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cast-in-place
continuity
individual components
A variety of techniques, such as _____, _____ and _______ can be used to connect precast structural elements. In the simplest of precast designs, precast slabs simply rest on a ____ ____ or ______. Simple designs of this type are not inherently rigid and the slabs need to be _______ tied together to resist horizontal forces.
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bolting, welding, and posttensioning
bearing wall or column
laterally
When precast beams are to be supported by columns, the beams may be supported by _____ _____ into the column.
A corbel, also known as a bracket, is a :
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corbels cast
ledge that projects from the column and supports the beam
______ _____ can also be supported by a short steel beam that is cast into the precast column.
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Precast beams
Nonbearing exterior wall attached to the outside of a building with a rigid steel frame. Usually the front exterior wall of a building intended to provide a _______ appearance.
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Curtain Wall
certain
The curtain wall is the building’s exterior enclosure and can be made of such materials as:
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aluminum, glass, steel panels, and masonry
A curtain wall tends to _____ the structural details of a building and makes it difficult to accurately identify the structural system by observation alone.
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conceal
It is difficult to know with certainty if a concrete frame building was constructed with _____ ____ or _____ _______. It may also be impossible to distinguish between ________ _______ and ______ ____ after a building is completed.
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ordinary reinforcing or posttensioned reinforcing
cast-in-place concrete and precast concrete
Concrete structural systems can have fire-resistance ratings from one to four hours. The fire resistance of a concrete assembly is affected by such variables as the following:
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- Concrete density
- Concrete thickness
- Concrete quality
- Load supported by the concrete
- Depth of concrete cover over the reinforcing bars
Structural lightweight concrete has a lower ________ than ordinary concrete and has a lower ______ _______. Therefore, it acts as a better _______ against the heat of a fire than does ordinary concrete of comparable thickness. However, structural lightweight concrete is not used for ____ _____members.
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density
thermal conductivity
insulator
load bearing
Cast-in-place concrete buildings have an advantage over precast buildings because the continuity of the assembly provides an _____ ______ to movement of the intersecting members such as _____ and _______.
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inherent restraint
columns and beams
Expansion of excess moisture within concrete due to exposure to the heat of a fire resulting in tensile forces within
the concrete, causing it to break apart. The expansion causes sections of the concrete surface to violently disintegrate, resulting in explosive pitting or chipping destruction of the material’s surface.
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spalling
The extent to which concrete undergoes spalling depends on the amount of _____ ______ in the concrete and ___ ___ _____ that has passed the concrete was placed.
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excess moisture
the length of time
Concrete absorbs heat when it is exposed to a fire. Because concrete has relatively good insulating properties, it tends to retain the heat of an exposing fire and release it slowly, similar to the manner in which a masonry oven releases heat. This general effect is referred to as the ___ ____ ____.
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heat sink effect
The heat released from the concrete is not enough to ______ ______, but is enough to make the overhaul operation _______.
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reignite combustibles
uncomfortable
Under certain conditions, building codes will allow the omission of structural fireproofing from roof supports in type – – construction
Type I
Fireproofing can be omitted from roof supports when the roof is located more than —— ft above the floor in an assembly occupancy
20 feet, therefore unprotected steel roof supports may be encountered in a building in which the main structural supports are fire resistive
Why do flat roofs deflect or vibrate noticeably has personnel walk across them?
- Because roofs are designed for lighter live loads and floors are
- Nonetheless, flat roofs usually must be designed to support the weight of at least a few workers so they can be accessed safely for maintenance purposes
- Therefore, the flexion or vibration under the weight of firefighters may not signal imminent failure
The deflection and vibration of roofs are an indication of———- roof construction, and firefighters should view such construction cautiously
Light weight
Inverted roofs differ from conventional roofs primarily in the location of
Their main roof beams
Describe the difference between a conventional roof system and an inverted roof system, as it pertains to the location of the main joists
- In a conventional roof system the main joists are located at the final roof level directly supporting the roof deck. A ceiling is attached to the underside of the joists or, more commonly, suspended below the joists.
- With the inverted roof, the main joists are located at the level of the ceiling and the framework is constructed above the main joists to support the roof deck
From the outside, the inverted roof looks like
Any other flat roof
What is the main concern of the inverted roof?
The design of the inverted roof creates a concealed space that may be several feet in height between the ceiling and roof deck
Describe the location of forces on the arch and dome roof
Horizontal thrusts exist at the base and a compressive force exist at the top
However, the forces in a dome are exerted around a complete circle instead of just one plane.
What is a rafter?
Inclined joists used to support some types of pitched roofs
Rafters are the standard supports used and what type of roofs?
Shed, gable, hip, gambrel, and mansard style roofs, although trusses can also be used for these retards
The basic design of a raptor results and what kind of thrust against the walls, similar to the action of an arch
Outward
The outward thrust of rafters is resisted by what?
Resisted by ceiling or attic floor joists or collar beams that are in tension
What happens if ceiling or attic floor joists are damaged or destroyed in a fire?
The roof can push out against the walls
If the architect desires to leave the underside of the roof exposed without joists, what must be used to support the rafters?
A structural ridge beam
P314
Describe the size and spacing of wood rafters
Would rafters vary in size from 2 x 4” to 2 x 14”. They can be spaced from 12 to 24 inches apart, depending on the span and design load
Trusses are a very common roof support system. Trusses use less material and are lighter than a comparable being or joist for an equal span. However, the reduced mass of their components and the interdependence of these components make them vulnerable to
Early failure under fire conditions
Ceilings are often suspended from a roof truss, creating what between the top and bottom chords and throughout the ceiling to the roof
Concealed spaces
Lightweight truss design noted by the bow shape, or curve, of the top chord
Bowstring truss
What type of connectors are used on the joints of the bowstring truss
This assembly uses split- ring connectors at all joints except the heel plates located at the ends of the truss
What is the most common type of trust used for pitched roofs?
Fink and Pratt style
What can roof trusses be made out of
Typically wood and steel
Where are both wood and steel trusses usually fabricated
Off-site and shipped to the job site
What happens if a truss is too large to be transported as one unit?
It can be moved in sections and connected in the field
The behavior of a roof supported by an arch is basically determined by
The material from which the arch is constructed.
What is one characteristic of some arch support of roofs that can cause catastrophic failure under fire conditions?
Some arch roofs use a steel tie rod between the two ends of the arc to resist the outward thrust of the arch. The tie rods extend through the interior of the building and are usually unprotected. Failure of the tie rods will permit the arch to spread outward and the roof will collapse
What is the deck of a roof?
The portion of roof construction to which the roof covering or roofing is applied
What are the components of roof decks?
Sheathing, roof plank or slabs, and purlins
Sometimes, as in concrete deck roof, the roof deck serves as the
Roof support
Corrugated steel decking is frequently used in applications where it serves as both the—- and the—— roof covering
Deck and exterior roof covering
What can roof decks be constructed of?
Plywood, wood planks, corrugated steel, precast gypsum or concrete planks, poor gypsum, poured concrete, and Seamit planks containing wood fiber
Wood panel decking may have a thickness of
1/2 inch on supports 24 inches on center
Minimum thickness of wood planks
1 inch nominal thickness
Describe corrugated steel in roof decking
Ranges from 29 gauge, the thinnest, 2 to12 gauge, the thickest. The overall depth varies from 3/4 to 2 inches. Corrugated steel decking can be used with a sheet of flat steel welded to the bottom to form cellar decking. The attached flat steel increases the stiffness of the deck
When cast in place concrete is used as a roof deck,what provision must be made for attaching the roof to the deck?
This is sometimes accomplished with wood nailing strips that are either embedded in the concrete at intervals of 3 feet, drilled and anchored, or placed between rigid insulation panels if rigid insulation is used
Why is it usual practice to use the same structural system for the roof and floors?
It is more economical
What provides the water resistant barrier to the roof
Roof covering
What determines the type of roof covering used?
Depends on the form of the roof structure, the slope of the roof, the local climate, and the appearance desired
Others include maintenance requirements, durability, required wind resistance, and fire resistance
What should the firefighters anticipate when roofs have been repaired and resurfaced question
That they may encounter more than one layer of roof covering on a given roof
Why do flat roofs require more complex roof covering the simplest then pitched roofs?
Because they drain more slowly
Watertight material used to prevent the passage of moisture or water vapor into and through walls or roofs or in the case of personal protective equipment that prevents water from penetrating the clothing
Vapor barrier
A flat roof usually consists of several component layers that include
Starting from the roof deck working towards the interior
Vapor barrier, thermal insulation, roofing membrane, drainage layer, and wear course
At what temperatures are the vapor roof barrier require?
It is needed when the average outdoor temperature is below 40°F in the indoor relative temperature is 45% or greater at 68°F
Part of roof decking that reduces heat loss through the roof
Thermal insulation
In addition to resisting the flow of heat, the insulation should have resistance to mechanical damage such as gouging, moisture decay, and fire
What are the two types of thermal insulation used for roof decking
Insulation can be poured or rigid
What are the two types of poured insulation materials used in thermal insulation for roof decking
Portland cement or gypsum
The study of fire behavior in buildings often pays little attention to the fire protection needs during the period of:
Construction
Page 375
A one-story Mercantile building of several thousand square feet can be completed in a matter of:
A high-rise building can take as long as____to complete.
A few weeks
As long as 3 years
Page 375
The hardness of brick is dependent on the -
soil used in its composition
Bricks are produced in a number of sizes. A typical brick size is _______ inches. For most brick sizes, three courses ( horizontal layers) of brick plus the intervening moral joints equals a height of ______ inches
3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 2 1/4
8
These four things and make driving, access, and staging at a construction site hazardous and:
Excavation sites
Stored equipment
Debris
Unfinished portions of construction
Page 376
Often a large construction project is located:
This situation is especially true for industrial complexes, sports complexes, and covered in all buildings.
A considerable distance from a paved street or highway
Fire codes require that fire hydrants be located close to buildings with a water supply capable of meeting the required fire flow for the premises.
Page 377
Fire hydrants may not be operational on a:
Construction site
Page 377
Masonry units have _____ tensile strength
no significant
In there structural application they are used to support compressive loads
What CAN be used to gain access to upper floors of a construction project?
Construction elevators
Page 378
Construction elevators are operated:
Manually
During normal work hours an operator is stationed on the car, during nonworking hours and operator is not provided.
Page 378
It is not uncommon to____to a construction elevator during non-construction hours.
Disconnect the power
Firefighters should determine what provisions exist for operating the construction elevator during nonworking hours during site visits.
Page 378
These are intended only to transport material at a multistory construction site.
They do not have the same safety features as a construction elevator and should never be used to transport personnel.
Material hoists
Page 378
Mortar is available in five basic types with strengths varying from as low as _____ to as high as _____
75 psi
2500 psi
Newer building codes require that a minimum of one_____be provided when building construction reaches a height above four stories or 50 feet.
Lighted stairway
Page 379
If a fire occurs at the very top of a construction project, it will be necessary to use stairs beyond the elevator to reach the fire. Firefighters may have to use:
Construction stairs or construction ladders
Page 379
The construction process tends to be inherently chaotic. Fire hazard such as_____and_____, exist at construction projects that would never be tolerated and he finished building.
Temporary wiring
Combustible debris
Page 379
Temporary heating is typically provided at a construction site during cold periods to provide a more comfortable environment for workers, protection of the fire sprinkler and standpipe system if they are being installed in the building. Temporary heating can also be needed for the:
Curing of concrete
Page 380
Temporary heating may be provided by several means including:
Natural gas
Kerosene
Propane
The heating systems used at a construction site become a cause of fires not only because of the temporary nature of their installations, but also because they are frequently left unattended.
Page 380
When propane is used as the fuel on a construction site, the tanks are susceptible to mechanical damage._____Size cylinders are commonly used in construction sites, and a number of extra cylinders are always stored on the site.
100 pound
Page 380
Firewatch usually refers to someone who has the responsibility to tour a building or facility on at least an____basis, looking for potential fire emergency conditions.
Hourly
Page 380
This is a common hazard on construction sites. It is used in the erection of steel frame buildings and is also used on reinforced concrete buildings to reinforce bars.
Welding
The sparks can also ignite residual fuel vapors around liquid fuel storage tanks. Fire prevention code usually requires a firewatch be provided during and after welding or cutting torches.
Page 380
The person assigned to firewatch responsibility should be provided with:
And extinguisher and he should have no other duties.
Page 380
One draw back to the use of masonry is that the basic construction techniques laying individual units by hand is _____
Labor intensive
234
Support for masonry over an opening; usually made of steel angles or other rolled shapes singularly or in combination
Lintel
The hardness of brick is dependent on the -
soil used in its composition
Portion of the exterior walls of a building that extends above the roof. A low wall at the edge of a roof.
Parapet
In contemporary practice, when a building is to be more than three or four stories tall, the use of ______ is usually more economical than a erecting a non reinforced masonry bearing wall
steel or concrete structural frame
The traditional and most basic masonry structure consists of exterior load bearing masonry walls that support the interior wood floors and roof that consists of wood joist and rafters
Ordinary construction (Type III )
The interior framing of a wood joisted building will be finished with ______, ________, or other interior finish materials to provide required fire resistance.
plaster
drywall
Masonry units have _____ tensile strength
no significant
In there structural application they are used to support compressive loads
The allowable compressive strength of brick masonry would be
250 psi
Cement like liquid material that hardens and bonds individual masonry units into a solid mass
Mortar
Mortar also serves to cushion the rough surfaces of the masonry units permitting ;
uniform transmission of compressive load from unit to unit
____ can be the weakest part of a masonry wall
mortar
Mortar is available in five basic types with strengths varying from as low as _____ to as high as _____
75 psi
2500 psi
Most mortar is produced from a mixture of ______, ______, _______ and water
portland cement
hydrate lime
sand
Most commonly used cement consisting chiefly of calcium and aluminum silicates.
Portland cement
Portland Cement is mixed with water to form a paste that hardens and is, therefore known as hydraulic cement
Wall that supports the weight of itself and the weight of the roof and / or other internal structural framing components such as the floor beams above it.
Bearing wall
The most commonly encountered load bearing masonry walls are constructed from;
brick
concrete block
or combination of brick and block
In contemporary practice, when a building is to be more than three or four stories tall, the use of ______ is usually more economical than a erecting a non reinforced masonry bearing wall
steel or concrete structural frame
Much of the work on a construction site is done with heavy equipment such as:
Excavators, cranes, lifters, and forklift. In order to keep equipment supplied with fuel, diesel and gasoline likely to be stored on site.
Page 380
In concrete buildings, the ultimate fire resistance of the concrete cannot be insured until the concrete has:
Cured
Page 381
It is imperative that firefighters not be positioned under burning____at a construction site.
Concrete formwork
If the formwork is destroyed, freshly placed concrete will collapse to the floors below
Page 382
In some cases, the_____maybe one of the last building components to be placed in service.
Sprinkler system
Page 382
The most common temporary fire protection measure is the installation of:
Standpipes with outlets
It can also include automatic sprinklers when sufficient progress has been made after the installation of the water supply.
Page 383
The most efficient method of providing fire protection on a construction project is to:
Make use of the permanent fire protection systems as they are installed.
Page 383
Horizontal layer of individual masonry units
Course
Single vertical row of multiple rows of masonry units in a wall, usually brick
Wythe
239
Course of bricks with the ends of the bricks facing outward
Header course
240
When bricks are placed end to end they create _________. If bricks are placed vertically on end a _______ is created
Stretcher course
Soldier course
An exterior brick wall often is constructed with a vertical cavity between the exterior wythe and the interior wythe. This is known as
cavity wall
Support for masonry over an opening; usually made of steel angles or other rolled shapes singularly or in combination
Lintel
________ and, to a lesser extent _______ are the most common methods of supporting loads over openings in masonry walls. Corralling is only used where the architectural style makes it attractive
Lintels
arches
Portion of the exterior walls of a building that extends above the roof. A low wall at the edge of a roof.
Parapet
Ordinary construction is also known as
Masonry, wood joisted construction
The traditional and most basic masonry structure consists of exterior load bearing masonry walls that support the interior wood floors and roof that consists of wood joist and rafters
Ordinary construction (Type III )
The interior framing of a wood joisted building will be finished with ______, ________, or other interior finish materials to provide required fire resistance.
plaster
drywall
*** it is especially important on high-rise buildings, and low rise buildings more than_____stories, that standpipe risers be extended up as construction progresses.
Three
Page 383
Building and fire codes typically require that standpipes be extended before the construction reaches____feet above the lowest level of fire department access.
40 feet
The top hose outlets should be within one story of the uppermost level having a secure floor.
On some projects, this may require that two standpipe risers be available so that one can be maintained and serviced while the contractor extends the other.
Page 383
Page 383
Angles cut made at the end of a wood joist or wood beam that rests in a masonry wall to allow the beam to fall away freely from the wall in case of failure of the beam. This helps prevent the beam acting as a lever to push against the masonry.
Fire cut
If the fire department connection is charged for a fire, water will flow out of:
Any open valve
Page 384
The fire department connection can be obstructed by:
Construction materials
Trucks
Or barricades
Page 384
If a dry standpipe is used during cold weather:
The riser must be drained after used to prevent freezing
Page 384
When theft of extinguishers is a problem at a construction site,_____can sometimes be substituted.
Barrels of water with buckets
Page 384
______Of a building can be more hazardous than new construction operations.
Remodeling
This is because the remodeling often takes place in one portion of the building while the remainder of the building continues to be occupied.
Page 385
When remodeling, if sprinklers must be shut off in the construction area, what must be provided?
First aide hose stations and extinguishers
The number of sprinklers shut off should be limited to those in the affected area.
Page 385
In newer buildings with sprinkler systems, building and fire codes require valves controlling the water supply for sprinkler systems with more than____sprinklers to be monitored at a constantly attended location.
20
Page 385
These construction projects present both the concerns faced in new construction along with some of the concerns faced in major remodeling projects.
Expansion projects
If new construction will impact one or more exits of the building, temporary exits must be provided. They may be provided using temporary fire rated tunnels.
Page 385
The_____of a building is a process that is even more chaotic than its construction.
Demolition
Fires on demolition sites are very common
Page 386
Measures that may be required to maintain the water supply at a construction site may include:
Temporary Mains
Hydrants
And fire department connections
It maybe necessary to provide temporary risers and temporary bulk sprinkler piping until the new construction is complete.
Page 386
To a firefighter, a building being demolished can present a virtual maze consisting of four openings, and unstable structural system, and operative fire protection systems, and unknown hazardous materials.
Exterior fighting firefighting tactics from a safe distance are the best course of action
Page 387
scavengers pilfering materials frequently become victims of their own activities and need to be rescued from the building being demolished.
The following are common concerns when dealing with partial or total building collapse:
- Loss of local or areawide water supplies
- Rupture of local or areawide gas distribution means
- Loss of local or areawide electrical distribution system
- Loss of local or areawide landline communications
- Impaired access roads
- Utilities and Roads May be impaired for days or even weeks
- Multiple building collapses
- Multiple incidents involving rescue of trapped occupants
- Fires following event due to accumulation or ignition of vapors from ruptured gas lines or means
- Impairment of building a life safety systems
- Fires occurring several days weeks later when utilities are restored, especially electrical service
- arson fires and subsequent days when owners realize the property damage is not covered by the insurance policies in effect
Page 394
This type of construction is highly susceptible to seismic events:
Unreinforced masonry construction
Page 395
There is no proven method to predict an earthquake. Seismic design considerations include_____and other features to provide sufficient resistance to seismic motion in order to minimize damage and avoid collapse.
Lateral bracing
Page 396
Defined as the movement of rock, Earth, or debris down the slope.
Landslides
Early warning signs include damage to underground utilities, cracking in roads, and minor slides in the area.
Page 397
Caused by the collapse of the ground surface into a below ground cavity.
Sinkhole
Another definition is a natural depression in a land surface formed by the collapse of a cavern roof. Generally occurs in the limestone regions
Page 398
The sinking or settling of land due to various natural and human caused factors such as removal of underground water or oil.
Subsidence
Page 398
With hurricanes, there is the added factor of____along the immediate adjacent coastal areas that cause additional building damage and destruction.
Water surges
One resource available to fire departments to assist them in monitoring weather conditions is my contacting the national oceanographic and atmospheric administration
Page 399
Model building codes include_____as part of the structural design requirements.
Wind loads
Page 400
In windborne debris regions such as coastal areas subject to hurricanes where the basic wind speed is_____miles per hour or greater, window glazing is required to be_____. Residence may also employ special brackets, also known as____,to provide additional reinforcement as storms approach.
110mph
Impact resistant
Wind clips
Page 400
Model building codes require that____and____loads be addressed as part of the structural design of the building.
Snow and rain
These values range from zero and certain portions of the Sunbelt states to 300 PSF
Water flowing where it is not normally expected.
Floods
Water can undermine foundations causing the building to partially or totally collapse.
Page 402
The structural design of a building includes consideration of the______associated with the expected occupancy of the building.
Maximum live loads
Page 403
There are four causes of structural collapse during the course of construction:
Temporary loads
Sequencing-another cause of collapse is the improper sequencing of the construction process
Weakness of building frame
Instability of building frame
Page 404
The common means of performing demolition mission include both Piecemeal and controlled collapse. Piecemeal demolition is performed by using_____or machines. Controlled collapses performed by using a___with a demolition ball, hydraulic push her arms, wire rope pulling, Or explosives.
Hand tools
Crane
A primary goal of demolition must be to protect nearby structures.
Page 406
_____May result in weakening of the structure or even an unwanted building collapse.
Amateur scavenging
Page 406
Often, accidental explosions in a building are the result of:
Natural gas leaks
Other common sources of explosions and buildings include boiler furnaces, gasoline vapors, finally powdered dust, storage of fireworks or blasting agents, and in today’s society meth labs. Deliberate explosions are rising threat due to terrorist activities.
Page 406
Walls constructed with fire rated concrete masonry units or bricks can have fire resistance ratings of
two to four hours or more
246
A fire officer needs to monitor changes or growth in masonry wall cracks during emergency operations. Changes in cracks or alignment can be indicators of
imminent collapse
A masonry wall may collapse partially or completely. A collapsing roof may dislodge only a parapet or an entire wall. Firefighters should always assume that if a wall collapses it will fall out from the building a distance at least ________
equal to the height of the wall
(1) Flat horizontal or vertical board located at the outer face of a cornice. (2) Broad flat surface over a storefront or below a cornice
Fascia
250
There are two characteristics that distinguish mill construction from Type 3 masonry construction. They are;
dimension of the wood structural members
and that fact that combustible concealed spaces are not permitted
The absence of _____________ is a major advantage in mill construction from a firefighting standpoint.
concealed spaces
What is the purpose of the membrane roofing?
Consists of waterproof material that keeps out rain and snow from the interior of the building.
What are the three general categories of membrane roofing?
Built up roof membranes, single ply membrane, and fluid applied membranes
Describe the built-up membrane type of membrane roofing
Built up membranes uses several overlapping layers of roofing felt saturated with a bituminous material that may be either tar or asphalt
- The layers of roofing felt are cemented together with a hot bituminous roofing cement. The roofing felt usually is supplied in rolls 3 feet wide. The number of layers of roofing felt used varies, but four layers is a common design. The more layers of felt used, the more durable the resulting roof will be
Describe the single ply membrane type of membrane roofing
A single ply membrane roof consists of a single membrane laid in sheets on the roof deck. The membrane material comes in sheets 10 or 20 feet wide and up to 200 feet long. The membranes are very thin, typically 0.03 to 0.10 inches thick
What materials are single ply membranes made of?
The most common is a synthetic rubber material, ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM).
Other materials include polyvinylchloride (PVC) and chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)
How are the single ply membranes of membrane roofing attached?
-They are attached to the roof by means of adhesive, gravel ballast, or mechanical fasteners.
-Using a propane torch to heat the underside of the membrane as it is unrolled will cause it to adhere to the roof.
-This process has resulted in roof covering fires that spread rapidly across the entire roof.
-The burning material liquefies and can drop down through holes in the roof decking onto content below
Pg 322
Describe the fluid applied membranes type of a membrane roofing
The fluid applied membranes are useful for buildings with curved roof surfaces such as dogs that would be difficult to cover with other materials. The material is applied as a liquid and allow to cure.
What materials are used for fluid applied membranes for membrane roofing
The materials used include neoprene, silicone, polyurethane, and butyl rubber pg 322
What is the drainage layer of roof decking?
The drainage layer permits the free movement of rain water to the roof drains. Depending on the membrane material used, the drainage layer can’t be the ballast layer in a single ply roofing system, a drainage fabric, or the aggregate used in a built up roofing system
What is the where course of roof decking?
External covering on a roof that protects the roof from mechanical operation. The typical tar and gravel roof uses gravel as the wear course
Roof coverings used on pitched roofs are generally one of two broad categories, what are they?
Shingle or tile roofs and metal roofs
Describe shingle and tile roofing
Small overlapping units that are relatively easy for workers to handle. Their small size allows for movement between individual units caused by thermal expansion and shifting of the building structural system. Shingles and tiles are available as wood shingles and shakes, asphalt shingles, slate, and clay and concrete tiles.
What is the difference between wood shingles and shakes?
The difference between wood shingles and shakes is in their method of production. What shingles are thin tapered slabs of wood that are song from pieces of a tree trunk. Shakes are split from the wood either by hand or by machine and are thicker than shingles. Wood shingles and shakes used in North America are made from red Cedar, White Cedar, or redwood because of the resistance of these woods to decay
Describe asphalt shingles
Produced from heavy sheets of asphalt impregnated felt made from rag, paper, or wool fiber. Asphalt impregnated fiberglass felt is becoming common. A mineral aggregate is embedded in the top surface to act as a where in service and to provide color.
What are common sizes for asphalt shingles?
Pg324
Asphalt shingles are available in several sizes but the most common size is 12 x 36”
Describe clay tile
Clay tile is an ancient material known to have been used for thousands of years. It is made by shaping clay and molds and firing it in kilns. It is a dense, hard, and non-absorbent material and can be used for flat or curved tiles. The curved Clay tiles are known as “mission tiles” and are used to create imitation (or genuine) Spanish style architecture
Describe concrete tiles for roofing
Made from Portland cement, aggregate, and water. Concrete tiles are frequently made to look like clay tile, slate, or even wood in color and texture.
What is a major advantage of concrete tiles over wood tiles?
Their longevity
Shingles and tiles are usually attached to the roof with
Corrosion resistant nails
How much of a wood shingle is actually exposed to weather?
Wood shingles are installed in an overlapping manner so that only about one third of the length of the shingle is actually exposed to weather
What type of decking can wood shingles be nailed to?
What shingles can be nailed to a conventional solid deck or two and open deck consisting of wood strips attached to the roof rafters. This latter method of construction can produce earlier failure of the roof when a fire occurs in the attic
Why are roof shingles and shakes popular architecturally?
Because they produce a rustic appearance and may be more resistant to wind damage than asphalt shingles
What is the primary disadvantage of wood roof shingles and shakes?
There disadvantage is that they pose a serious fire potential. They can be easily ignited by burning brands landing on them from an exposing fire. Once ignited, they can produce embers that spread fire to other roofs
How can wood shingles and shakes reduce their combustibility and meet model code requirements?
They can be pressure impregnated with a fire retardant solution. Experience with pressure impregnated with shingles and shakes indicates that the treatment remains effective after exposure to the elements.
When would shingles and shakes are treated with fire retardant, what is commonly done to reduce the fire resistance?
Painting or staining fire retardant shingles or shakes can reduce the effect of the fire retardant, especially if oil based materials are used
Describe the fire performance of asphalt shingles
-Asphalt shingles are fundamentally combustible. They tend to drip and run under fire conditions and produce a characteristic heavy black small.
-Asphalt shingles used for roofs are typically produced with a grit surface that reduces their ease of ignition and permits there used under the provisions of building codes
Pg 325
Fire performance clay tiles, slate, and cement tiles
Clay, slate, and cement tiles are noncombustible and produce fire resistant roof coverings that have excellent resistance to flying brands. Flying brands, however, can be blown under tiles such as Spanish tiles That do not lie flat, and ignite the roof deck.
What are some firefighter safety concerns with clay tiles, slate, and cement tiles
1) tiles can become loose and fall from the roof as a deck burns away and nails lose their grip or as firefighters conduct ventilation operations
2) The surface can become slippery, posing a serious fall hazard. Proper equipment and caution could be used at all times
3) The thin pieces of slate are brittle and may have sharp edges, creating a hazard for firefighters below
What are several materials that make up metal roof coverings?
Galvanized iron or steel, copper, zinc, aluminum, and lead. Flat or corrugated metal can be used. Corrugated sheets of aluminum or steel are widely used on industrial and agricultural buildings
Corrugated roofing sheets are generally strong enough to be installed without
Decking, in these cases the roofing sheets are supported by roof beams or purlins
- The spacing between purlins can be from 2 to 6 feet
Standard of fire tests of roof coverings
NFPA 256 also ASTM E – 108
Describe the standard method of fire test of roof coverings
-The test simulates several fire exposure conditions for fires originating outside a building. The standard does not evaluate the fire resistance of the structural system supporting a roof or the fire resistance of the roof itself with respect to a fire originated within a building(TEST) last Captains test. Does not test for fire originating within the building.p328
In the test, samples of roof coverings are attached to a wooden deck measuring 3’4” by 4’4”.
- The samples are then subjected to the required test procedures:
1) Intermittent flame exposure test
2) Burning brand test
3) Flying brand test
4) Rain test
5) Weathering test
6) Spread of flame test
How many times are individual test procedures repeated for roof coverings?
The individual test procedures may be repeated from 2 to 15 times on different samples depending on the specific material being used.
if the properties of a specific roof covering material are subject to variation, more than the minimum number of tests contained in NFPA 256 may be required
What are the three classifications of roof coverings; based on the severity of fire the material can withstand
Class A roof coverings are effective against a severe fire exposure class B roof coverings are effective against a moderate fire exposure class C roof coverings are effective against a light fire exposure
How do building codes use the three roof classifications?
Building codes use these three classifications to control the flammability of roofs. Therefore, certain types of construction, such as fire resistant buildings, may be required to have class a or class B roof coverings. A building code may also use the classification to restrict the flammability of roofs on buildings in congested areas such as a downtown area.pg 328
What is a rain roof?
A second roof constructed over an existing roof
What is the main firefighter concern with a rain roof?
- A void is created between the rain roof and the original roof and eighth, and any concealed space creates problems during firefighting. When a fire enters the space, you can travel undetected in several directions and is exceptionally hard to access and extinguished.
- The existence of two separate roofs can also impede rapid and effective ventilation. p329
What is a green roof?
Involves the use of the roof surface of a building for a rooftop garden.p329
What are the benefits to green roofs?
- One is the increased insulating affects between the building interior and the outside.
- Probably the greatest benefit however, is in the increase in here quality due to the oxygen carbon dioxide exchange of growing plants, particularly in urban areas.
A green roof can take several forms, what are they?
A green roof or rooftop garden can vary from the use of potted plants and flower boxes to a layer of earth with growing plants covering a large area of a roof.
Green roofs can be developed on existing roofs and a new construction. P330
If a rooftop garden is to be used, what engineering needs to take place?
A rooftop garden constitutes a dead load on the roof structural system, which must be capable of supporting the load. The layer of earth required for a rooftop garden can vary from a few inches to one or 2 feet. Depending on the depth of the soil, the deadload can vary from 20 pounds per square foot 150 pounds per square foot.
-In new construction the structural engineer can provide for this load in the store in the structural plans just as it’s done for Stella’s
What is a photovoltaic roof?
(Solar energy) system produces a clean and reliable energy that can be used in a wide range of applications. Photovoltaic cells and panels can be laid on top of a roof or embedded in the roof pg 331
What are the hazards for a photovoltaic roof?
- Although solar energy represents a clean source of energy, the electricity generated by the operation of the solar system represents a significant hazard for firefighters. Even if power to the building is shut off, the panels retain a significant amount of electricity. It is not safe to break photovoltaic cells or skylights that are actually solar power. -Furthermore, panels themselves represent a significant tripping and fall hazard. Pg 330
- In emergencies conditions electrical shock, inhalation exposure, falls from roof, and roof collapse always present serious safety considerations. For these reasons, it is crucial that fire department conduct thorough preincident planning to identify the structures rather than encountering them during adverse conditions
- Solar panels, like other elements on a roof, may not even be visible from the ground on a building with a flat roof.
Where might a firefighter deal with a air supported roof?
Air supported roof structures are often used in sports arenas and at colleges and universities. Air supported roofs provide protection from the elements and enable year-round use of the area under the roof. A typical use with this type of structure would be a sports practice facility(Dolphins have one) p331
How are Fire fighting tactics in air supported roofs different than conventional tactics?
Air supported roofs do not lend themselves to conventional firefighter and tactics. Attempting to ventilate the roof may result in loss of the interior supporting structure. The roof is curved it will not support the weight of firefighters. Having doors open to provide the firefighting access for lengthy periods could result in slow deflation of the structure
What is a penthouse?
1) structure on the roof of a building that may be used as a living space, to enclose mechanical equipment, or to provide roof access from an interior stairway.
2) room or building built on the roof, which usually covers stairways or houses elevator machinery , and contains water tanks and/or heating and cooling equipment. Also called a bulkhead
What are some access points for penthouses?
Sometimes houses may not be directly accessible from the inside of a building it must be accessed from the roof. This is frequently the case with penthouse is built for elevator and mechanical equipment. Buyers can occur in the spaces, however, so when the roof is beyond the reach of ladders, firefighters must locate a route to the roof. Although some means of access to a roof must always be provided for maintenance purposes, the access may not be readily apparent and may entail climbing up ladders through roof hatches.pg 332
What are skylights?
Any of a variety of Ruth structures or devices intended to increase natural illumination within buildings in rooms or over stairways and other vertical shafts that extent of the roof
What type of glass are required for skylights according to building codes?
Skylights are sometimes provided with operable glass panes to facilitate normal building ventilation. For safety purposes, building codes require wired glass or tempered glass in skylights. Skylights on modern buildings can also be plastic domes
What is a functional role of a ceiling?
Ceilings can be designed to control the diffusion of light and distribution of air in the room. In addition, the space above a ceiling can be used to conceal air-conditioning ducts, electrical wiring, and sprinkler piping
Model building codes define a high-rise building as a building more than how many feet in height
75 feet
The height is measured from the lowest level of emergency vehicle access to the floor of the highest occupied story
From a fire protection standpoint, a high-rise building is any building that is beyond
The effective reach of fire equipment located at the street level
What is the main problem in a high-rise building created simply by virtue of the building height?
The most obvious aspect of a high-rise building is that exterior means of fire attack and rescue or not possible beyond a certain height
As the firefighter becomes more dependent on built-in features in a high-rise building, what takes on an even more important aspect of fire ground operations?
Pre-incident planning
What to developments made high-rise buildings as they are known today possible?
Steel frame construction and the elevator
The first model building codes that were introduced in the 1920s and 30s required what?
Stairs and elevators to be enclosed
Why were automatic sprinklers and Communications Systems not commonly provided until the last quarter of the 20th century
Because the buildings were constructed with fire system materials, automatic sprinklers were not considered necessary
The most significant and obvious feature of modern high-rise buildings is their
Height
The earliest high-rise buildings were rarely more than 10 or 12 stories. Today’s building exceeding 60 stories have become common place
Describe building ventilation in modern high-rises
Ventilation may be accomplished through the fire department control of the HVAC system. Attempted to ventilate the upper floors of the building by simply breaking out windows poses considerable risk to persons on the street below. The enclosure of stairwells and elevator shaft reduces the upward flow of combustion products.
Who should the fire department arrange to meet at the emergency scene for assistance with building operations?
Engineering staff
Typically, model building codes require what fire resistance for the structural frame of a high-rise building depending on the number of stories and occupancy
2 or 3 hour
What fire resistance is normally required in floor construction of a high-rise building?
2 hour
- In reinforced concrete construction the floors will be concrete slab.
- In steel frame buildings the floors will be lightweight structural concrete placed over corrugated steel
Fire protection systems required in high-rise buildings
Automatic sprinklers, voice evacuation system, fire department communication system, and often some form of smoke control
Since the mid-1970s, building codes have routinely required that high-rise buildings be equipped with automatic sprinkler systems as well as
Standpipe systems
The sprinkler and standpipe systems are typically supplied from the same vertical riser
These systems will be supplied by one or more fire pumps located in basement of the building
Water supply requirements and seismic zones
A secondary on-site water supply is required, usually in the form of a storage tank
The sprinkler system in a high-rise building will be provided with individual
Floor control valves
Why are the floor control valves of a sprinkler system important in high-rise buildings?
These valves are important because they permit the rapid shutdown of sprinklers on the floor on which a fire has occurred after the sprinklers have control the fire.
This permits the sprinkler system to remain in service on the other floors during overhaul operations and reduces the water damage from a fire.
These valves are also useful in reducing water damage resulting from a broken sprinkler
The taller the building, the more that firefighting operations are dependent on
The availability of stand-pipes
Why are standpipe risers and hose valves located within stairwells?
To provide a protected location from which to advance a hose line
Why does NFPA 14 require installation of pressure reducing valves
Excessive pressure in the lower portion of a stamp pipe riser is undesirable because it can make those lines difficult or dangerous to handle
NFPA 14
Installation of standpipe and hose systems
NFPA 14 requires pressure regulating devices to be installed at hose connections when the static pressure at a 1 1/2 inch hose exceeds—-psi or when the static pressure exceeds—-psi at larger outlets
100 psi
175 PSI
In a high-rise building it is not unusual for a system to include how many devices
Several hundred
What are the voice alarm systems in high-rise buildings?
- Many modern high-rise buildings have voice alarm systems that automatically sound and alert tone followed by voice instructions on actuation of any detector, water flow device, or manual pull station.
- These voice evacuation systems are often zone by floor.
- These systems will have voice override capability to broadcast further instructions on a selective or on call basis
In high-rise buildings, it is not uncommon to evacuate what floors only?
The floor of origin, the floor above, and the below rather than the entire building
Smoke detection high-rise buildings
Smoke detection in high-rise buildings typically include duct detectors arrange to prevent recirculation of smoke weather floors. Smoke detectors are usually provided in elevator machine room’s and elevator lobbies to initiate elevator recall. Some model codes require corridor smoke detectors in residential occupancies.
All of these detection devices along with waterflow switches are required to be monitored through the fire alarm system. (Smoke detectors in individual residential units are not monitored through the fire alarm system).
The two-way fire department communication system in high-rise buildings operates between the fire command center and
- Landings of enclosed exit stairways, areas of refuge, elevators, elevator lobbies, and emergency generator and fire pump rules.
- Spare telephone handsets are often provided in the fire command center
Describe the pressure sandwich concert
During the 1970s, the model building codes began requiring break out panels and exterior walls. However instead of the break out panels, the coach typically permitted the use of building mechanical air handling system to have a smoke removal, if the building was completely protected by automatic sprinklers.
-A common approach using the mechanical equipment was called a “pressure sandwich”. This approach exhausted the floor of fire origin and pressurize the floors immediately above and below to contain the smoke to the floor of origin.
Why do model building codes currently not require special mechanical smoke removal provisions for the floor of origin anymore.
This is based on the premise that code requirements for shaft construction in the ceiling of four penetrations in conjunction with automatic sprinklers are adequate to control smoke movement in the building.
All model building codes require smoke proof exit enclosures in all stairs serving what floors?
Serving floors 75 feet or higher
Entrance to the stairways must be made through an open balcony or a pressurized vestibule
Pg346
Typically, a fire command center is located where in a high-rise building?
- Typically on the first floor or level of fire department access.
- The model building codes require a room or area in a high-rise building to serve as a fire command center.
- The location of the space must be approved by the fire department
What type of fire rating is required in a fire command center?
Often, and enclosed room separated from the remainder of the building by 1 hour fire rated construction is required.
Many jurisdictions require that the fire command room be accessed how?
That the room be accessed directly through an exterior door
What are typical features of a fire command center?
1) emergency voice alarm system control panels
2) fire department two way telephone System panel
3) fire detection and fire alarm system annunciator panel
4) elevator location and status panel
5) sprinkler valve and water flow annunciator
6) emergency and standby power status indicators and controls
7) Central, status panel for small management systems
8) Controls for unlocking stairway doors
9) fire pump status indicators
10) telephone for fire department use with access to public telephone system
When do fire personnel need to do walk-throughs to verify that maintenance and repair of all fire protection systems are performed regularly?
Pre-incident planning and inspections visits
What is a “central core” floorplan?
In a central core configuration such building services as elevators, stairwells, and service shafts are grouped in the center of the floor. This arrangement maximizes the amount of space available for development around the periphery of the building
Vertical extension of fire in a high-rise building
Is by exterior communication from floor to floor. This is particularly likely wear a glass curtain wall extends from floor to ceiling. Model building codes now have strict requirements for sealing voids where floors intersect with curtainwalls
Horizontal extension of fire in high-rise buildings will depend on the
Extent to which a floor is subdivided by partitions. The partitions between units in the Corridor enclosure will act as barriers to fire spread.
How to emergencies in underground facilities pose difficult problems for fire fighters?
1) Access to the structure
2) rescue and evacuation of occupants
3) ventilation of heat and smoke
4) water supply and drainage from flooding or firefighting operations
What is probably the greatest single challenge and controlling fires in underground buildings?
The difficulty in venting heat and smoke
Normal ventilation tactics usually will not work when the roof is entirely below grade.
It is critical that these structures be thoroughly pre-planned and that the plans be kept current
Why is it evacuation of occupants from underground locations more difficult than high-rise buildings?
Because of the greater physical exertion required for occupants going upstairs and the greater potential for a stairwell being filled with smoke from the fire below.
Smoke proof enclosures are now required for buildings with levels more than 30 feet below the level of exit discharge
What are some special building code provisions that may be required for underground buildings?
One typical requirement is that the underground portion of the building be a fire assistive construction.
- Where buildings have floor levels more than 60 feet below the level of exit discharge, separation of each level into two approximately equally sized compartments may be required.
- Each compartment will be provided with at least one stair and access into the other compartment.
- The codes require automatic sprinkler protection for underground buildings, even if a portion of the building extends above the ground and the above ground portion of the building does not require sprinkler protection.
- To address the problem of ventilation of smoke and he, model, it’s often require a smoke exhaust system. The depth at which a smoke exhaust system becomes necessary as well as specific requirements for any system will depend on the applicable codes.
Challenges in windowless structures
These structures can present many of the same challenges as underground buildings.
- Firefighter access for fire suppression and rescue has limited as well as the ability to quickly and efficiently ventilate the building.
- As a result, building codes generally require these buildings be fully protected by automatic sprinklers.
- In addition, emergency access openings are typically required on a minimum of two sides of upper floors of these buildings. These openings must be readily identifiable an operable from both the exterior and interior, and sized to allow for rescue and ventilation operations
What is a membrane structure?
Building having its exterior skin consist of a thin “waterproof” fabric.
What are the different types of membrane structures?
Air inflated, air supported, membrane covered cable, and membrane covered frame
What kind of occupancies do membrane structures accommodate?
Tennis courts, athletic fields, ice-skating rinks, several major sports stadiums, warehouses, casinos, churches, and campus dining facilities
What is a major advantage of membrane structures?
Can be used to provide a large on obstructed interior space
What is the roof on air supported and air inflated structures made out of?
Made of a vinyl coated polyester fabric material
Safety during an emergency elevator use
1) do not use an elevator to travel to the fire floor – stable though the farm for according to SOP’s.
2) maintain the ability to communicate via radio or other means at all times
3) know the visual signal on the elevator control panel that indicates and impending elevator problem
4) never use a fire or heat damaged elevator
5) never use an elevator that has been exposed to water
6) become familiar with the emergency procedures required to operate elevators by training on actual local systems
Codes contain mandatory provisions for the recall of all passenger elevators with vertical travel greater than
25 feet
The automatic recall of elevators(Phase 1, Recall)to their terminal floor or an alternate or can be caused by the activation of
Smoke detectors or sprinkler water full alarms
Phase 1 can also be activated manually by a keyed switch in the terminal floor lobby
What is the purpose of a phase 1 elevator operation?
Is designed to prevent the deaths of civilians who may find themselves in an elevator that is called to the fire floor
Phase 1 operation automatically stops all the cars that serve the fire for if they’re moving away from their terminal floor. It also causes the cars to return nonstop to the lobby or other designated level if the alarm originated from the lobby
What type of elevators do phase 1 operations not apply to?
Freight elevators
What is the phase 1 elevator operation?
Emergency operating mode for elevators. Phase 1 operation recalls the car to a certain floor and opens the doors
How can the fire department account for each car to be certain there are no civilians trapped in a stalled car at or above the fire floor?
This can be accomplished by checking the elevator control and information panel that is usually located adjacent to the elevator bank
Phase 1 operation makes it easy to see which cars are empty and which may be on another level with people trapped.
What happens to the elevators emergency stop and floor selection buttons during phase 1 elevator operations?
They are rendered inoperative so that car occupants who may be unaware of the fire or emergency cannot stop the car anywhere but at the terminal floor
What is a phase 2 elevator operation?
Emergency elevator operating mode that allows emergency use of the elevator with certain safeguards and special functions
Phase 2 elevator operation is designed to permit firefighters to use the elevators after they arrive on scene by overriding the recall feature
What must a firefighter do to initiate phase two elevator operations?
A firefighter must insert a key and a three- position switch within a car to place that particular car in “fire service”
During phase 2 elevator operation, and elevator becomes essentially a
Manually operated elevator.
The floor select buttons within the car remain operable but the floor call buttons on the individual floors are inoperable, meaning that the controls are only operable within the car.
The elevator doors do not open automatically and the operator must push the “door open”button in the car
Why is the electric Eye safety disable during phase 2 operations?
The electric eye safety, which prevents the doors from closing if there is a person or smoke in the doorway, he is disabled during phase 2 operations. This is done so the car doors can be closed and the car moved if it inadvertently stops at a smoke-filled floor.
What is the definition of an underground building?
Is defined by some counts as one in which the lowest level used for human occupancy is 30 feet below the main exit that serves that level
Why are more underground buildings being built or planned?
With the current trend toward sustainable green building design
What are the advantages of having an underground building?
Security, relatively constant temperatures, and smaller visual impact
What are access differences between old underground buildings and the new modern ones?
Older underground buildings were usually access to vertically from grade level; however, some modern underground buildings are being built into the side of hills with the primary access being horizontal
Pressure required on air supported structures
0.35 psi
Why are cables frequently used to anchor the roof in Air supported structures?
Because the interior pressure is greater than the exterior pressure, cables are frequently used to anchor the roof to the ground or substructure
Describe normal access or egress in air supported structures.
Normal access or egress is provided through airlocks or revolving doors. Because revolving doors may not be permitted to be used as exits by a building code, emergency exits may also be provided
What are the limitations of air supported or air inflated structures
They are obviously limited to one store. To comfortably accommodate human occupancy, the interior pressure and air supported structure can be slightly greater than the outside pressure. Air supported buildings, therefore, make use of a membrane that weighs only a few ounces per square foot for the building skin. This limitation however, does not apply to air inflated structures because the occupants are not exposed to any interior pressure
How can firefighting and air supported and air inflated structures pose usual problems?
Conventional ventilation of an air inflated or air supported building is not possible because firefighters simply cannot open the roof. The fans could probably keep up with the air loss through a small opening in the membrane. However, gaining access to the roof is difficult and dangerous. One offsetting feature, however, is the likelihood that the membrane may self vent by melting under high temperatures.
Describe membrane covered cable structures
A membrane covered cable structure uses a system of masts and cables to provide support for the membrane covering. Similarly, membrane covered frame structures utilize a rigid frame system, usually with columns, to support the membrane
- these type of membrane construction are more commonly used than air inflated or air support structures
- cannot be used to provide a large unobstructed interior space because of the necessary support system
Shopping mall configuration and construction
- Shopping malls are constructed in various sizes and configurations and typically consist of one to three levels.
- When they contain more than one level, covered malls will have multiple openings between the levels.
- Building codes require that the mall be a minimum of 20 feet in width. This space permits the use of opens storefronts while still allowing for pedestrian exiting.
What are anchor stores?
Malls are usually doesn’t designed with one or more large, well-known perimeter stores that are known as anchor stores.
In some cases, the mall may include a hotel as an anchor. The anchor building serve to hide in the overall commercial appeal of the mall.
The anchor buildings are usually operated by nationally known chains and owned and managed as separate entities.
The anchor stores may be separated from the smaller stores by a firewall
Sprinkler requirements of malls
Current codes require malls to be fully sprinklered; however, it is possible to find older covered malls that are only partially sprinkler or even non- sprinklered. It is also possible to find in older covered malls that the anchor stores are sprinklered and the smaller stores are non-sprinklered
Fire resistant rating of malls
Codes require individual stores within a shopping mall to have a 1 hour resistive separation from each other.
Smoke control system requirements for malls
Current codes have eliminated the requirement of a smoke control system in all covered mall buildings, regardless of the number of stories. However, a smoke control systems may be required in 2 and three-story covered my buildings
Access considerations of a mall
Because the smaller stores face into the mall, access to an individual store by responding fire companies may be slow because apparatus cannot drive directly up to the front of the store. Furthermore, a store may be some distance from the mall entrance, necessitating a long hose line. To compensate for this condition, codes now require fire department hose outlets in stairs, at major entrances to the mall, and that entrances from the mall to corridors and passageways
How can the periodic turnover of smaller tenants in malls affect firefighting operations?
This often results in vacant stores and stores undergoing renovation. When stores are remodeled, the work is typically done while other stores in the mall are open for business. Stores that are being renovated will have all the hazards associated with construction. In addition, the sprinkler zone protecting that store maybe shut off at times during the renovation. This usually results in the sprinklers been shut off and nearby stores
What are defend in place procedures?
Procedures take into the shelter persons from harmed during an emergency without evacuating them from a structure. Used especially in hospitals and prisons
Model building code requirements for fire protection and life safety features for detention and correctional facilities
These features may include remote release of door locks, smoke compartments, areas of refuge on either side of smoke barriers, automatic sprinklers, smoke control systems, and both manual and automatic fire alarm systems.
Newer correctional facilities will likely have a central control center where locking devices are monitored and controlled. However, current codes still allow the use of keys under certain conditions
What additions to the correctional facilities have allowed them to protect in place
Until recent years, there was a reluctance to install automatic sprinklers in detection and correctional facilities because of the possibility of inmates committing suicide by hanging themselves from sprinklers. A breakaway sprinkler has now been developed,
now many of the newer facilities have automatic sprinklers installed.
Another key element is the creation of one or more compartments on each floor, separated by a fire rated smoke barrier.
This allows inmates to be moved horizontally from the compartment of fire origin to an adjacent compartment on the same for therefore, in most cases, it will not be necessary to utilize stairs and evacuate inmates.
What is an atrium?
Open area in the center of a building, extending through two or more stories, similar to a courtyard but usually covered by a skylight, to allow natural light and ventilation to interior rooms
Model code requirements for sprinklers in atriums
Include automatic sprinkler protection. Automatic sprinklers may only be required for those floors that are connected by the atrium. The building codes have a basic requirement that and atrium be enclosed with that one hour fire rated construction or a combination of glass and automatic sprinklers. However, codes usually make provision for illumination of the one hour enclosure for up to three stories or more when certain conditions are met.
Model code requirements for smoke control systems in atriums.
Any smoke control system is required to vent the products of combustion to the outside weather floors are closed or not. Until recently, the exhaust capacity was determined by the volume of the atrium and the on enclosed for us connected to the agent. Current code space the exhaust capacity to maintain the smoke later and his specified high above the highest walking level serving the exit system. The required exhaust capacity is based on the magnitude of expected fire and the height to the bottom of the desired smoke layer
How can the height of an atrium affect fire protection systems?
When sprinklers are installed at an atrium ceiling 50 or more feet above the floor, they will be less effective because of the longer time it takes for them to operate – if they operate at all. Some codes now waive the requirements for sprinklers where the ceilings of atriums are more than 55 feet above the floor
What is an explosion?
A physical or chemical process that results in the rapid release of high-pressure gas into the environment
What distinguishes and explosion from such other occurrences as ordinary combustion?
The speed with which the process occurs
Common examples of how explosions explosions can occur
1) Explosions involving a chemical reaction such as the rapid combustion resulting from the ignition of a mixture of air and a flammable vapor, or a condition of a mixture of air and dust. Dust explosions often occur in grain elevators and in milling operations involving sawdust.
2) explosions resulting from uncontrolled chemical reactions in processing plants or decomposition of unstable compounds
3) boiler explosions – a purely physical event in which no chemical reaction occurs.
The damage and explosion may inflict on a structure depends on what?
Depends on the maximum pressure developed, rate of pressure rise, the duration of the peak pressure, and the resistance of the confining structure
What are the two methods that can be employed to reduce the structural damage from an explosion?
Containment or venting
Describe the containment as it relates to an explosion
In containment, the building enclosure is constructed with adequate reinforcement to contain the pressure resulting from an explosion without failure. Containment is usually expensive because it normally requires reinforcement beyond what is necessary for ordinary structural design purposes. The maximum pressure reached during an explosion may be as high as 10 times the atmospheric pressure, or more
Describe venting of a building to prevent damage from an explosion.
Explosion venting is designed to quickly relieve the pressure produced by an explosion before it causes excessive damage. Ideally, and explosion event would be open at all times. However, there are very few industrial operations That can be carried out without some kind of an enclosure
What are the different types of explosion vents?
Louvered openings, hangar type doors, wall panels, windows, or roof vents
Why must vent panels be relatively light?
- Because vent panels must operate quickly, they must be relatively light. If the explosion panels are too happy, their inertia will slow the speed at which they are operating resulting in a faster rate of internal pressure rise. Ideally, explosion been panels should not weigh more than 3 pounds per square foot.
- Several different materials, such as lightweight corrugated steel or aluminum sheets, are often used in industrial buildings for explosion vents.
One method to help ensure wrap and operation of the panels is to attach the panels with——- ——– ———, which are designed to break under the force of an explosion
Reduced diameter bolts
The panels also may be hinged at one side and fastened at the other so that they swing open in an explosion
What is an adequate size of explosion vent?
The required explosion vent area is a function of the size and strength of the structure, the expected forces of the potential explosion, and the type of event. Determination of the actual event area, therefore, requires an engineering analysis
Safety considerations for explosion venting of a building.
It is important to remember that the venting of an explosion is a means of limiting structural damage. Explosion venting is not a substitute for prevention of explosions and it does not provide for the protection of personnel within a building. The pressure wave developed within the space May be great enough to cause death or injury even when it is vented, because the pressure wave may come into contact with personnel before the vent opens.
When explosion vents operate, the force is carried beyond the opening. Therefore, in the design of vents, consideration must be given to what lies in the path of the pressure wave in the area beyond the vent opening
An area of refuge for a stairway serving as an accessible means of egress can be located where?
Within the stairway on a landing or from an adjacent vestibule
The area of refuge is designed to accommodate
One or two wheelchairs, depending on the occupant load served. The wheelchair space must not obstruct other occupants using the stairway or vestibule for egress
Because and occupant of an area of refuge could potentially be left unattended or go unnoticed, what else is required
Areas of refuge must be provided with some type of two-way communication system connected to aconstantly attended location. This system must be designed to accommodate persons with any type of disability
What can be the total height of rack storage?
Storage racks can vary from two or three tiers with a total height of just 12 feet two in excess of 100 feet
Safety considerations in rack storage
Normally, storage racks are structurally independent of the building in which they are located, and are often bolted to the floor. In some instances, however, the rack system provides part of the structural support for the building. Because racks consist of unprotected steel members, they may collapse under fire conditions. This situation not only adds to the difficulty of fire suppression, but can also affect the stability of the entire structure when the racks are used as part of the building structural support
Although rack storage is highly efficient, it results in a very high
Density of Storage
When the stored materials are combustible, such as paper or containers of flammable liquid, a high fire load is produced
What makes access to rack storage by firefighters very difficult
The racks are frequently arranged with narrow aisles
Where houses may have multiple rows of racks wider than 12 feet were with Isles narrower than 3 1/2 feet. These configurations create what two problems?
First, the penetration of water from overhead sprinklers is obstructed by the intervening tears of storage. Second, flue spaces may be created that permit vertical communication of fire through the racks
What determines the level of sprinkler protection and rack storage?
Is determined by the height and style of racks, the commodity being stored, and the type of containers or palletizing used for the storage.
Sprinklers are often installed at the ceiling and within High rack configurations.
The effectiveness of in rack sprinklers can be reduced if the sprinkler discharge is obstructed by the material being stored
