Building construction Flashcards
The combustibility of the interior finishes effects the behavior of fire and what several ways:
- It can contribute to the fire extension by flame spread over the surface of walls and ceilings
- It affects the rate of growth (which can lead to flashover).
- it add to the intensity of fire because that contributes fuel
- it can produce smoke and toxic gases that contribute to the live hazard
The term interior finish is:
- Generally applied to the materials used for the exposed face of the walls and ceilings of a building
- Including but not limited to fixed or movable walls and partitions, columns, and ceilings
- Commonly refers to finish on the walls and ceilings and not for coverings
Interior finishes can include such materials as:
Plaster, gypsum wallboard, wood paneling, ceiling tiles, plastic, fiber board, and other wall coverings
Term used in the international community for interior finish?
Interior lining
Building codes usually exclude surface treatments such as paint and wallpaper that are no thicker than?
1/28 inch
During a fire , thin materials tend to behave in a manner similar to
The material to which they are attached because the heat is transmitted to the material beneath the surface material
If there are multiple layers of surface material, however, such as several layers of vinyl, the surface material acts as
An insulator and will contribute to the spread of fire
At one time, floor coverings were not considered to contribute significantly to the development of fires because heat naturally rises. What increased awareness of a need to regulate floor coverings?
The introduction of various deep pile floor Carpets
What are surface burning characteristics of the material?
The degree to which fire can spread over the surface of a material
The speed of flame spread over an interior finish is influenced by what factors?
-The composition of the material
-Ventilation
– The shape of the space in which the material is installed
– Whether the finished material is applied to the ceiling or wall
Are an inexact science and cannot precisely duplicate the wide variety of real-life situations in which interior finish materials are found
Standardized fire test methods
When air is in motion, it possesses Kinetic energy. We feel this Kinetic energy as____
Wind
E= 1/2mv2
E=energy
M=mass of a body
V=velocity
Pg73
When the wind encounters a fixed object, it exerts a force. Wind exerts the following basic forces on a building:
Direct pressure-the impact effect the wind has on surface. This force may be reduced by streamlining the surface encountered.
Aerodynamic drag-when wind encounters an object, it’s fluid nature causes it to flow around the object. This exerts a drag effect on the object.
Negative pressure-a suction effect produced on the downwind side of the building resulting in an outward pressure.
When wind exerts force on a building there are 3 secondary effects that may be produced:
Rocking effects- a back and forth effect due to variations in the velocity of the wind.
Vibration-wind passing over a surface such as a roof may cause vibration on the surface depending on the velocity of the wind and the harmonic characteristics of the surface.
Clean off effect-the tendency of wind to dislodge objects from a building.
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The energy possessed by a moving object
Kinetic energy
In designing buildings to withstand the force of wind, the primary effect considered is the:
Force due to direct pressure.
*This force increases with the velocity of the wind and can be evaluated by the basic equation:
P=Cv(2)
V=velocity
P=static pressure
C= .00256 a numerical constant that accounts for the Air mass and simplifying assumptions of building behavior
When speaking about the effects of wind, the actual design pressure used by engineers must be adjusted to account for:
Building height
Surrounding terrain
Specific features relating to the shape of the building
*In addition, designers must consider the combined effects of wind forces and localized conditions, such as closely spaced buildings in an urban area.
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The force resulting from wind is particularly dangerous when it occurs against an ______
Unbraced wall
Fire personnel should also be alert for unbraced walls at:
Demolition sites and at fire damaged buildings where interior structural supports have collapsed or been destroyed.
The vibrational motion of the surface subjects buildings to forces known as _____ that can be very destructive, as history has shown
Seismic forces
Forces developed by earthquakes. Seismic forces are the some of the most complex forces exerted on a building.
Seismic forces
Earthquakes can occur anywhere on earth; however, major earthquakes occur most frequently in parts of the world known as:
Fault zones or zones of high probability
*Zones of high earthquake probability include the Pacific coast of the United States and Canada, Hawaii, Central Utah, and southern Illinois.
The vibrational motion produced by earthquakes can be:
Three dimensional
The force produced in a structural member when it is twisted
Torsional forces
Movements of relatively large amplitude resulting from a small force applied at the natural frequency of a structure
Resonant forces
The magnitude of the forces developed within a building during an earthquake depends on several factors, including the following:
- Magnitude of the vibratory motion
- Type of foundation
- Nature of the soil under the building
- Stiffness of the structure
- Presence of damping mechanisms within the building
Building codes may require that materials with greater surface burning rates be installed
Over a non-combustible material
Why do building codes make use of the flame spread rating of materials?
To establish some control over interior finishes
The classification of interior finishes are used to restrict the materials in vertical exits and exit corridors to those with
Low flame spreads
Materials with a class A interior finish
(0 to 25) rating are required in the vertical exits and most occupancies
Interior finish material with class B rating
(26 to 75) rating are required in corridors that provide exit access
Building codes generally allow an increase in the flame spread rating of interior finish materials in buildings equipped with
Automatic sprinkler system
Interior finish class C flame rating
(76-200)
What is the maximum flame spread rating allowed?
200
What is fire load?
Measure of the total fuel available to a fire, therefore, the total heat that can be released in a fire
The severity of a fire is determined by:
The fire load plus the rate at which the fuel burns
What is the heat release rate (HRR)?
Total amount of heat produced or released to the atmosphere from the convective – lift fire phase of a fire per unit mass of fuel consumed per unit time
The rate at which a fuel burns is determined by several factors. The most significant is:
The combination of fuel and available oxygen
Why is the combustibility of interior finish materials a significant factor in the development of fires and buildings?
In the case of interior finishes used on walls and ceilings, the combustible material always has a large area exposed to the surrounding oxygen
Interior finishes are tested to derive several measures of the materials flammability:
the flame spread rating and the smoke developed rating
Most commonly used method for evaluating the surface burning characteristics of materials
Steiner tunnel test
ASTM standard E 84 and UL 753
Steiner tunnel test
NFPA 255
Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning characteristics of building materials
What is the flame spread rating?
Numerical rating assigned to a material based on the speed and extent to which flame travels over its surface
Examination of the role of interior finishes is directed at materials applied to the
- Ceiling of a room or the upper portions of a room
- It is assumed that the most critical application of a material would be on the ceiling
Size of the”tunnel” used in the tunnel test
The tunnel consists of a horizontal furnace 25 feet long with a removable top. The interior furnace is 17 5/8 inches wide and 12 inches high
What are the Steiner tunnel test procedures?
- The sample material to be tested is attached to the underside of the top of the furnace and the assembly is lowered into place.
- A gas burner located at one end of the tunnel produces a 4 1/2 foot flame that is projected against the test material.
- The flame is adjusted to produce approximately 5000 BTUs per minute.
- The test is then continued for 10 minutes, during which time to travel of the flame along the test sample is observed
To derive the numerical flame spread rating, the flame travel along the test material is compared to two standard materials. Name them and describe process
- Asbestos cement board and red Oak flooring
- According to the test protocol, the flame will travel along the oak flooring 24 feet and 5 1/2 minutes.
- The flame spread of other materials during the test is compared to that red Oak.
- Obviously, the higher the flame spread rating, the more rapidly flame will spread
What is the flame spread rating of Asbestos cement board
0
What is the flame spread rating of red Oak
100
What is the significance of the flame spread rating?
- The flame spread rating developed in the tunnel test as a means of comparing the surface flammability of a material to standard materials under controlled test conditions.
- It is not an absolute measure of spread of fire travel.
The flame spread rating may not produce an accurate correlation with the actual behavior of a material in a fire. This is due to the effect upon
surface burning of such factors as room shape and dimensions and fuel load in a room
The thickness of the test specimen has an effect on the flame spread rating because a thicker material
- Has different thermal insulating properties than a thin material
- When interior finish materials are intended to be used in varying thicknesses, they must be tested in those thicknesses
For flame spread test results to be accurate, test specimens must be attached with the
Same materials and methods used in actual installations
What is smoke develop rating?
Is a measure of the relative visual obscurity created by the smoke from a tested material.
-The results are from the tunnel test
smoke developed rating procedure
- It is measured by a photo electric cell and a light source located at the end of the tunnel furnace.
- As with the flame spread rating, red Oak is used as a standard test material and has been assigned a smoke developed rating of 100. -Therefore, under test conditions, a material with a smoke developed rating of 200 produces smoke that is twice as visually obscuring as red Oak.
- it is very important to remember that the smoke developed rating is not an indication of the toxicity or volatility of the products of combustion of the interior finish materials
Codes limit the maximum smoke develop rating to be
450
What is volatility?
Ability of a substance to vaporize easily at a relatively low temperature
The flame spread rating of some interior finishes, most notably wood materials, can be reduced through the use of
Fire retardant coatings
-fire retardant coatings only affect the coated surface. They do not affect the untreated backside of a panel.
Several types of fire retardant coatings that may be available include:
-Intumescent paint’s
-mastics
-gas forming paints
cementitious and mineral fiber coatings
How do intumescent paint perform as fire retardant’s?
Expand upon exposure to heat to create a thick, puffy coating that insulates the wood surface from heat and excludes oxygen from wood
How do mastic coatings work as a fire retardant?
Forms a thick, noncombustible coating over the surface of the wood
How are fire retardant coatings used incorrectly?
- They must be applied at a specific rate of square feet per gallon and may require more than one coat.
- They also may not have a permanent effect if used in exterior applications or environments with humidity.
- In any case, products that have not been tested by a reputable laboratory should not be trusted
What does the ASTM E 84 test measure?
The surface burning characteristics of materials (the tunnel test).
It is useful because it provides reproducible results and is a widely recognized standard
Some materials will produce a fire hazard greater than indicated by the tunnel test when they are installed in an environment that approximates a real room. There are two reasons for this increased hazard:
1) flame spread is generally different over a vertical surface than across a horizontal surface
2) The walls and ceiling of a room provide for re-radiation of heat between the intersecting surfaces
Test developed that incorporates the size and shape of real rooms
Corner test
Early corner consisted of
A ceiling and 2 intersecting walls
The walls and ceiling of the assembly were aligned with the material to be tested
NFPA 265
Standard methods of fire tests for evaluating room fire growth contribution of textile coverings on full height panels and walls
NFPA 286
- More recently developed large scale test for wall and ceiling finish
- Fire tests for evaluating contribution of wall and ceiling interior finish to room fire growth
- Developed to handle materials that may not remain in place during the tunnel test, such as plastic materials that may melt and drip
NFPA 265 and NFPA 286 test procedure
- The material to be tested is placed on three of the walls. (The surface of the wall containing the door opening is not covered).
- In the 286 test, the material is placed on the ceiling if it is intended to be used in that manner.
- The materials are subjected to two different size gas flames
NFPA 265 and NFPA 286 results
These tests do not provide a numerical test results such as the flame spread rating derived from the tunnel test.
-Instead, the test material is charged either satisfactory or unsatisfactory depending on the extent of fire growth that occurs within the test room upon exposure to the two gas flames
Rooms In a healthcare facility will require class – – – interior finish materials
Class A or B interior finish materials
The international building code establish a specific acceptance criteria for interior finish materials to include:
Noting whether or not the flame spread to the ceiling of the test chamber
– the flame cannot spread to the outer extremity of the sample
– flashover cannot occur
– the peak rate of heat release cannot exceed 800 kW
– a maximum amount of smoke released
What is active fire protection?
Consists of equipment such as an automatic sprinkler system or fire alarm system that requires a power source for operation
What is passive fire protection?
- Relies on building construction in materials to contain fire or products of combustion.
- Firewalls or stair enclosures are examples of passive fire protection
What is compartmentation?
Subdivision of a building or floor levels of the building by fire rated walls or partitions
A lack of compartmentation can result in
Rapid spread of fire horizontally and vertically through a building
What does shelter in place mean?
Fire rated partition building compartmentation
- Fire rated partitions can provide areas of refuge for occupants when immediate or rapid evacuation is not possible, such as in the hospital
- Codes typically require fire rated partitions to subdivide patient floors so patients can be moved From the area of fire origin to a protected part of the floor
- occupants of high-rise residential buildings have survived fires simply by remaining in another apartment separated from the fire rated partitions.
- this protection requires that intervening doors be closed
Floor and ceiling assembly required compartmentation
Almost any floor and ceiling assembly or wall construction will act as a barrier to fire to some degree, but not every wall or a partition in a building is fire rated.
- Partition separating individual rooms within an apartment, are not fire rated.
- The degree of fire resistance required of a wall or partition will depend on its purpose.
- Building codere quirements are changing and requirements for compartmentation are seen less and less
What are firewalls?
- Also called area separation walls, are corrected to limit the maximum spread of fire.
- It’s a fire rated wall with a specified degree of fire resistance, built of fire resistive materials and usually extending from the foundation up to and through the roof of a building, that is designed to limit the spread of a fire within a structure or between adjacent structures
- firewalls subdivide a building into smaller pieces so that a fire and one portion of the building is limited to that area and does not destroy the entire building
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____ is only one of many considerations for the building designer and architect
Fire safety
To design an adequate structure, the engineer must first determine the _____ and _____ of the forces to which the structure will be subjected.
Type and magnitude
*Making this determination is the most critical aspect of engineering design
With regards to buildings, the interest of the firefighter is necessarily focused on the____
Way a building reacts when it is involved in a fire.
If a building is to be located in a region where it will be subjected to hurricanes, the force of hurricane wins must be determined so that…
Adequate roof anchoring can be designed
It is necessary to understand the _____ of the loads exerted on a building before they can be evaluated.
Nature
Any effect that the structure must be designed to resist.
Load
*Forces of loads, such as gravity, wind, earthquakes, and soil pressure, our exerted on a building
Loads arise from several sources such as:
Gravity
Wind
Earthquakes
Soil pressure
_____ Creates a force on a building through the weight of the building components and all of its contents.
Gravity
*in addition, gravity can exert a force (added weight) if snow, ice, and water accumulate on the roof or water accumulates inside the building due to flooding.
Force acting to draw an object toward the earth’s center; force is equal to the objects weight
Gravity
What are the benefits to having a firewall?
Greatly reduces potential economic loss and can enable a stricken industry to recover more quickly
Why are firewalls not popular with designers?
-Because they increase structural costs and may interfere with the free movement of materials through a factory or warehouse
They can also be architecturally unattractive and occupancies such as shopping malls or airline passenger terminal where an expansive interior is desired.
How many developers circumvent requirements for firewalls?
By resorting to freestanding structures, like single family residences, that are separated but built very close to one another
-some single-family homes can be as close as 18 inches apart
When do building codes allow elimination of firewalls?
- When a building is equipped with an automatic sprinkler system and meets criteria for occupancy, height, and other code requirements
- it is not unusual, therefore, to find very large industrial, warehouse, and mercantile facilities constructed without firewalls
What is a freestanding firewall?
- Freestanding walls are self-supporting and are independent of the building frame.
- Freestanding firewalls are usually found in buildings of wood- frame or wood joist and masonry (type III or IV construction, although they may also be used in noncombustible buildings.
- Freestanding walls must be designed to resist and lateral load of at least 5 pounds per square foot and are self-supporting with respect to vertical it.
- They are independent of the building frame although the building frame may provide some horizontal support
What is a tied firewall?
Erected at a column line in a building of steel frame or concrete frame construction.
In a steel frame building, any steel members, such as columns, that may be incorporated into the firewall must be provided with the same degree of fire resistance required for the firewall itself.
Fire resistance rating of firewalls
- Originally firewalls were required to have a fire resistance rating of 4 hours, but recent building current permit firewalls with fire resistive rating of two, three, or four hours, depending on the occupancy. A 4hour rated firewall usually must be constructed of masonry or concrete and have 3 hour rated openings.
- In most buildings firewalls must be constructed of noncombustible materials
How far must firewalls extend?
-Firewalls must extend extend beyond walls and roofs to prevent the radiant heat of flames on one side of a firewall from igniting adjacent surfaces.
-This is accomplished by continuing the firewall through the roof with a parapet.
-The parapets height above a combustible roof is determined by the building code and varies from 18 to 36 inches
Some buildings contain exceptions that permit the illumination of parapets under certain conditions.
What is a fire partition?
Interior walls used to subdivide a floor or area of a building and do not qualify as firewalls.
- Fire partitions may not extend continuously throughout the building.
- A partition is usually a erected from a floor to the underside of the floor above.
- Fire partitions are typically not required to have as much fire resistance as a firewall.
What materials are fire partitions constructed of?
- Wide variety of materials including lath and plaster, gypsum wallboard, concrete block, and combinations of materials.
- The material chosen depends on the required fire resistance and construction type of the building.
A partition wall separating adjacent units in an apartment building may be required to have a fire resistance of
One hour
A common method to accomplish the one hour partition fire rating in a fire resistive structure is to
use 5/8 of an inch fire rated gypsum wallboard applied to both sides of 2 1/2 inch steel studs
How can you achieve the one hour fire resistance for partition and type III or type V building construction using wood studs
If the 5/8 inch gypsum wallboard were applied to both sides of a 2 x 4” wood studs
When is fire rated glazing used?
For partitions where visibility is desired and a fire rating is required.
What is and enclosure wall?
Used to enclose such vertical openings at stairwells, elevator shafts, and pipe chases that extend from floor to floor in a building.
The purpose of enclosed walls is to
block the vertical spread of fire through a building and, in the case of stairwells, to protect a means of egress.
What is the main difference between an enclosure wall and a fire partition?
The main difference between the two designations is their function
Fire resistance rating enclosure walls?
One or two hours depending on the height of the building.
- Stairwells in buildings three stories or less are required to have a 1hour enclosure
- In buildings taller than three stories, they are required to have 2 hour enclosures
What is glazing?
- Glass or Thermo plastic panel in a window that allows light to pass.
- The use of fire rated glazing provides a fire barrier while permitting observation of the stair enclosure, which can enhance security
What are light shafts?
- Windows from interior rooms would open into a light shaft to facilitate ventilation.
- Light shafts could be provided in an individual building but were frequently provided between adjacent buildings.
- Designed to let in natural light
Problems with firefighting in structures with light shafts?
- Like other vertical shafts, they can serve as an avenue for the spread of fire
- provide a means of vertical communication of fire from window to window
What is a curtain wall?
- Non-bearing exterior wall attached to the outside of the building with a rigid steel frame.
- Usually the front exterior wall of the building intended to provide a certain appearance
What is the design function of the curtainwall?
- Is to separate the interior environment from the exterior environment.
- To that extent, the curtainwall must resist wind, rain, and snow. -Curtainwalls must also be designed to control heat loss, noise transmission, and solar radiation
How did the curtainwall come into existence?
- With the development of the steel framed high-rise building.
- Because the main structural support was provided by the frame, the extra wall did not need to be loadbearing.
What are curtainwalls most often constructed of?
- Combination of glass and steel, stainless steel, or aluminum
- Can also be constructed with lightweight concrete, plastic, fiberglass, and a variety of metal panels with core materials such as expanded paper honeycombs and compressed glass fiber
Two aspects of curtainwalls that are significant to firefighters
Their degree of fire resistance and extent to which they permit vertical communication of fire
Fire resistance curtain wall
Because a curtain wall is non-loadbearing, it lacks the inherent fire assistance provided by a more massive load bearing wall.
- Some curtain wall assemblies, such as those made of aluminum and glass, have no fire assistance.
- Nonetheless, building codes may require the exterior walls – including curtain walls have some degree of fire assistance to reduce the communication of fire between buildings
What is a fire door?
A specially constructed, tested, and approved fire rated door assembly designed and installed to prevent fire spread by automatically closing and covering a doorway in a firewall during a fire to block the spread of fire through the door opening
The most common means for protecting openings through fire rated walls is by the use of
Fire doors
How do fire doors different from ordinary doors?
In their construction, their hardware, and the extent to which they may be required to close automatically
Fire door rating
A fire door is rated for its fire assistance in a manner somewhat similar to that used for fire system of structural assemblies. Fire doors are rated as 4 hours, 3 hours, 1.5 hours, 1 hour, 3/4 of an hour, 1/2 hour, and 20 minutes
Letter designation used to classify fire doors
Were meant to describe the type of opening for which a door wasn’t tendon, but historically the letters have been used to describe the door itself
There are five classes A, B, C, D, and E
Class A fire door opening
Openings in firewalls
Class B fire door openings
Openings in vertical shafts and openings in two hour rated partitions
Class C fire door openings
Openings between rooms and Corridors having a fire resistance of 1 hour or less
What is a class D fire door opening
Openings in exterior walls subject to severe exposure from the outside of the building
Class E fire door opening
Openings in the exterior wall subject to moderate or light exposure from the outside
Building codes typically require 4 or 3 hour rated doors in firewalls of greater than – – – hour rating
2
One phenomenon associated with earthquakes is_____. It occurs where the soil is of a loose, Sandy nature and is saturated with water.
Soil liquefication
*This action results in a reduction of the strength of the soil leading to shifting of foundations and serious structural damage.
The tendency of a body to remain in motion or at rest until it is acted upon by force.
Inertia
Although the movement of the ground beneath a building can be three dimensional, the_____motion is the most significant force
Horizontal
As the ground moves under a building,_____tends to keep the upper portion of the building momentarily in it’s initial position.
Inertia
If an earthquake generates additional ground motion, this motion can produce a_____motion in a building.
Swaying
*Low buildings are less susceptible to this type of motion then tall buildings.
Buildings with _____ are inherently more susceptible to damage from earthquakes than buildings having a symmetrical design.
Geo metric irregularities
Because the tall and short sections of a building have a different heights, their responses to the vibrations of the surface will be different. This difference in their responses can produce damaging forces at the junction of their two parts.to overcome this difference, a _____ can be designed into the structure between the two sections.
A seismic joint
The required width of the seismic joint increases based on the height of the building.
Maintaining the_____of seismic joints can be difficult and has been ruled as a main contributor of fire spread in the 1980 fire at the MGM grand in Las Vegas
Fire rating
In earthquakes, the severity of the force developed depends on the acceleration of the ground beneath the building, not necessarily the total movement. Building codes contain provisions for seismic design based on the:
Duration and magnitude of the ground acceleration for the geographic area in which the building is located.
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With earthquakes, some buildings are more critical than others and require stronger seismic bracing such as:
Large places of public assembly, large office buildings, schools, and institutions.
With earthquakes, buildings essential for community recovery after an earthquake that also must be designed for greater seismic loads include the following:
Fire and police stations
Hospitals
Communication centers
Emergency preparedness centers
Generating stations
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One method to protect buildings against the forces of earthquakes is to increase a buildings:
Stiffness through the use of shear walls and cross bracing
Buildings designed with_____are less likely to collapse if one member fails.
Redundant structural frames
A fire door may be found with a combination classification, such as a class B 1 1/2 hour rating. This designation means:
The door is intended to protect an opening in a vertical shaft(class B) and has a 1 1/2 hour rating
What is the criteria for acceptability (passing all required testing) for a fire door?
1) The primary criteria for accessibility is that the fire door must remain remain in place during the test. Some warping of the door is permitted as well as intermittent passage of flames after the first 30 minutes of the test. There is also no maximum surface rise on the unexposed side of the door for most of the doors tested. In fact, metal doors may actually glow red from the heat of the test fire. If an opening through a firewall is no longer needed for passage, the opening should be filled in with construction materials equivalent to the wall.
2) The second criterion for acceptability is that the fire door assembly must remain in place when subjected to a hose stream immediately following the fire test. The use of a hose stream subjects the door assembly to cooling and impact effects that might accompany firefighting. Doors with a 1/3 hour rating may not be subjected to the hose test depending on their intended application.
Underwriter laboratories Inc. publishes a list of fire doors that have passed the test and what directory?
Fire resistance directory
How do you identify fire rated doors?
- Fire rated doors are identified with a label indicating the Door type, hourly rating, and the identifiable label of the testing laboratory.
- The fire door labels facilitate the identification of fire doors by building and fire inspectors in the field.
- It is not uncommon for labels to be painted over during building maintenance and there also has been at least one case of counterfeit laboratory labels appearing in the field.
For a fire door to effectively block the spread of fire, it must remain closed and:
Attached to the firewall under fire conditions.
A fire door must be equipped with hardware that holds
The door closed under the stresses of fire exposure
When fire doors are installed in a frame, the frame must
Also withstand exposure to a fire
The testing of fire doors includes the frames as well as the
Hardware
The hardware used on fire doors is referred to as either
Builders hardware or fire door hardware
Builders hardware is applied to swinging doors and includes such items as:
Hinges, locks and latches, bolts, and closers
Fire door hardware is used on both – – – and – – –fire doors
Sliding and swinging fire doors
The vision panels enhance safety and security by permitting observation through
A closed door
Fire door glazing is often not provided by the door manufacture and may be installed at the job site by a
Glazing contractor
NFPA 80
Standard for fire doors and fire windows
NFPA 80 requires that each piece of glass installed in a fire door have a – – – – – – that is visible after installation. 2 words
Listing Mark
What is wired glass?
- A sheet of glass in which a steel wire net has been embedded.
- at one time the only fire rated glazing available was wired class
What is the purpose of the steel net in wired glass?
What happens to wired glass when exposed to fire?
wired glass will crack when exposed to a fire but will remain in place until it begins to soften and fall out
Recent changes to fire rated glazing
- In recent years fire rated glazing has been developed that does not rely on embedded steel wire.
- These products can provide higher hourly fire ratings than wired glass.
- They are somewhat more visually appealing to and can be used as windows or sidelights in fire rated walls as well as in fire doors.
- Some of the recent developed fire rated glazing is impact resistant so can also be used for security purposes
What are the restrictions on the allowable area of glass in fire doors?
-Fire doors with ratings of 1, 1 1/2, and 3 hours can have glass panels up to 100 in.² in area per door
-fire doors with ratings of 3/4 hour can have a total glass area consistent with their listing, but an individual piece cannot exceed 1296 in.².
Fire doors with the ratings of 1/2 or 3/4 hour can have fire rated glass up to the maximum area to which they were tested
Describe louvers in a fire door
- It is sometimes desirable to install louvers in a fire door to permit ventilation while the door is closed
- The louvers in a fire door must close in case of fire to protect the opening.
Usually, louvers are closed by means of
Fusible link
Which doors can have louvers?
- Louvers cannot be arbitrarily installed in fire doors.
- Only those fire doors that are listed for the installation of louvers can have louvers installed
What are the two ways that fire doors can be closed?
Automatic and self-closing
What is an automatic fire door?
Door normally held open and closes automatically under fire conditions when an operating device is activated
What is a self closing fire door?
Door that is normally closed and will return to the closed position if it is opened and released
Type of doors that fire door closers are used for
Swinging or sliding
The two devices that fire door closers use
It can incorporate a hold open device or can be self closing
-
A fire door closer that uses a hold open device, uses what device?
It incorporates a fusible link device that holds the door open and releases the door under fire conditions
Self closing doors are commonly used for what applications?
Stairwell doors and doors that separate hotel rooms from corridors.
One commonly used self closer uses a —– —— to close the door when released.
spring hinge
Types of fire doors that a door holder can be used with
Swinging, sliding, or rolling fire doors
The devices that operate fire doors include
Door closers, door holders, and door operators
A door holder is intended to be used with
A suitable door closer
Describe an electromagnetic door holder
- Can be used in conjunction with a smoke detector that releases the holder.
- This arrangement is very useful in areas with a large volume of traffic such as school stair enclosures. They are often used in healthcare occupancies where they can be released by operation of a fire alarm system
- Having fire doors held open prevents the practice of blocking the doors in an open position
What is a door operator?
Consists of an electric operator that opens and closes the door for normal use. A door operator is intended for use with sliding fire doors that are mounted on either a level or inclined track.
Under fire conditions, a fusible link disconnects the door from the operator and allows it to be closed by means of a spring powered door closer or a system of suspended weights
What are the advantages of using a fusible link in a door operator?
It is inexpensive, relatively rugged, and easy to maintain
What is a disadvantage of using a fusible link with a door operator
- A disadvantage is that it is slower to operate and devices that react to smoke or rise in the rate of temperature.
- A significant amount of smoke my flow through a door opening before a fusible link can release a door
What is an advantage of using a smoke detector as opposed to a fusible link with a door operator?
The door closes more quickly and also permits easy testing of the fire door.
Disadvantage of using smoke detector with a door operator
A smoke detector costs more and requires periodic cleaning. They also must be properly position with respect to dead air spaces or ventilation ducts
There are a number of types of fire doors designed for use in a particular setting. Among them are
Rolling doors, overhead doors, horizontal doors, as well as other types
Rolling steel fire doors are constructed of interlocking steel slats with other operating components including
A release device, governor, counterbalance mechanism, and wall guides
Where are rolling steel fire doors used in a building?
- And overhead rolling steel fire door is used to protect an opening in a firewall and an industrial occupancy.
- It is also frequently used at the opening in a wall separating buildings. -An overhead rolling steel fire door may be used on one or both sides of a wall opening.
What is one architectural advantage of an overhead rolling fire door?
It is relatively inconspicuous and out-of-the-way
How does and overhead rolling door ordinarily close?
Under the force of gravity when a fusible link melts but motor driven doors are also available
Dangerous conditions caused by overhead rolling doors
The overhead door may create a dangerous dead- end corridor when it closes.
- -Overhead doors can also create a dangerous condition for firefighters who may not be able to see the door installation through the heavy smoke.
- Firefighters advancing on a fire must use care when moving through an opening protected with overhead rolling fire doors to avoid being struck by a closing door.
- In addition, a door that closes after firefighters have passed through it can trap firefighters in the fire area, cutting off their escape path, restricting water through pinched hose lines, and this orienting members who do not realize that the door came down across the corridor behind them
Where are horizontal sliding doors normally found?
Older industrial buildings
How are horizontal sliding doors held open?
By a fusible link and slides into position along a track either by gravity or by the force of a counterweight
What type of materials is the normal horizontal sliding door constructed?
Metal – covered, wood – core door
Describe the wood- core door
- They wood core provides thermal insulation while the sheet metal covering protects the wood from the fire.
- Because wood undergoes thermal decomposition when exposed to heat, a vent hole is usually provided in the sheet-metal to prevent gases of decomposition
What type of metal is used to cover the wood core in the horizontal sliding door
Steel, galvanized sheet metal, and terneplate, which is a metal composed of tin and lead.
In horizontal sliding doors, smooth galvanized sheet metal is used on wood core doors known as
Kalamein doors
Horizontal sliding Fire doors made with galvanized steel or terneplate are commonly referred to as
Tin clad, although strictly speaking the metal used is not pure tin
Swinging fire doors are available with ratings of
3 hours to 20 minutes
Where are swinging fire doors often used?
Stairwell enclosures and corridors. Although a swinging fire door has the disadvantage of requiring a clear space around the door to ensure closure, it is a good choice where the door is frequently closed and provision must be made for pedestrian traffic
When is it necessary to use a vestibule between the doors that is a fire resistive construction?
Where it is necessary to provide a fire door on either side of a wall and the swinging doors are in and exit path so that they are required to swing in the direction of exit travel.
- A pair of fire doors may be installed to close off a corridor at a firewall, with one door swinging in each direction to accommodate exit travel in both directions
What are common facilities that make use of a vestibule between fire doors?
Some healthcare facilities, apartment buildings, and schools
Horizontal folding fire door operation
- This door is motor driven and requires electrical power for operation.
- A signal from a smoke detector or fire alarm system initiates the door closing.
- A battery powers the motor if the regular power supply is interrupted.
In what situation might a horizontal folding fire door be used?
This type of door is frequently used where a fire rated partition is required and the designer does not wish to provide a fixed wall to create an unobstructed floor plan.
What is a common reason for failure of fire doors in actual fires?
Failure of fire doors to close properly
What is a common reason for failure of fire doors to work properly?
Damage to the door closer, the door itself, or door guides
Proper fire door operation requires that the doors be
Properly maintained
Therefore, inspection, testing, and proper maintenance, are always important
What is the function of a foundation?
To transfer the structural load of a building to the ground
A structural element designed to control vibration.
Damping mechanism
Damping mechanisms are typically installed at:
The connections between columns and beams, they absorb energy as the structure begins to move
The basic concept of base isolation is to isolate the building from the:
Horizontal movement of the earth’s surface.
The following to isolation methods have been used:
Elastomeric bearings
Sliding systems
The force generated by soil pressure must be evaluated in the_____
Design process
The forces associated with soils are difficult to:
Determine accurately and may only be estimated
Soil exerts a horizontal pressure against a foundation. The magnitude of the pressure depends on:
- The type of soil
- It’s degree of cohesion
- It’s moisture content
The pressure exerted by the soil against the foundation is known as the:
Active soil pressure
The force of the foundation against the soil is known as the:
Passive soil pressure
In determining the force created by the active soil pressure, the soil is assumed to behave like a:
Fluid
The basic equation used to determine soil pressure is:
P=Cwh
P=pressure
H=depth of the soil
W=density of the soil
C=numerical constant that depends on the physical properties of the soil.
Firefighters frequently become involved in rescue operations because of_____or_____, so building foundation shifts have real life application.
Trench collapses or construction excavation accidents
In addition to the forces already discussed these three forces may also be exerted on a building:
- Temperature: as the temperature outside a building changes, the structural members at the periphery of the building expand and contract.
- vibration: vibration can arise from sources within a building such as rotating machinery.
- Shrinkage: shrinkage can occur in wood structural members as the lumbar dries overtime. This can result in tensile forces at connections between the members.
Weight of the structure, structural members, building components, and any other feature permanently attached to the building that is constant and immobile. Load on a structure due to its own weight and other fixed weights.
Dead load
The forces on a building resulting from gravity, which were described earlier, are classified into two types:
Dead loads and live loads
The weight of any permanent part of a building. This includes the weight of the buildings components such as roofs, floor slabs or decks, interior walls, stair systems, exterior walls, and columns it also includes permanent equipment such as heating plants, elevator hoist, pumps, and water supply tanks in earthquake zones.
Dead load
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Although dead loads usually remain the same, they can change, such as when:
An air-conditioning unit is installed on the roof of a building.
It can also increase over time when additional layers of roofing material are added in the course of resurfacing
Supports that shift or settle will alter the forces on structural members
- Above the foundation of the building
- In severe cases, the frame of a building maybe distorted, floors may slope, walls and glass make crack, and doors and windows may not work properly
Various types of surface materials are found throughout different regions of the world. They may range from – – – space – – – at one extreme to – – – – – – at the other
Loose sand at one extreme to solid granite and the other
Body of local law, adopted by states, counties, cities, or other governmental bodies to regulate the construction, renovation, and maintenance of building.
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Building Code
Although jurisdictions can write and adopt their own codes, they typically adopt all or a portion of a ______ package as their building and fire code.
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“model code”
Different types of soil may be found at different depths in a given location. Before planning of a building can proceed, civil engineers must determine the properties of the soil that lies beneath the site. This is done by taking a——- or by using——-
By digging a test pit or by using test borings
Test pits are usually used up to a depth of about
8 feet
The use of a test pit permits the – – – of the soil to be observed and measured
Strata
Some jurisdictions may adopt and use codes developed by the National Fire Protection Association (such as __________, and ___________ and _______ .
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NFPA® 1, Uniform Fire Code
NFPA® 5000, Building Construction
Safety Code
When using a test boring, what method is used to get information about the soil strata?
The number of impacts of a standard driving hammer, required to drive the boring tube a given distance provides information about the soil Strata
Line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped _____ or vegetative fuels.
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Wildland/Urban interface
wildland
What determines the type of foundation required for a project?
Depends on the type of building (structural configuration) and soil conditions at the site
A foundation must support the dead load of a building and live load of its contents. In addition, a foundation may need to be designed to resist what other forces
Wind loads that may apply lateral or uplifting forces to a building
– soil pressure
– uplifting forces from underground water
– thrusts resulting from the support of arches, domes, and vaults - seismic forces
The main factors that determine the type of foundation to be used for a building are the soil conditions and the structural configuration. Other factors include:
– The working space available
– Environmental factors
– Impact on adjacent property
– Building codes and regulations
Foundations are divided into two types:
Shallow and deep
A—–foundation transfers the weight of the building to the soil at the base of the building
- Shallow
- A shallow foundation can be used where the loadbearing ability of the soil directly under the building is adequate to support the building
The actual construction process requires ____ and ______.
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coordination and scheduling
One method of managing a construction project is a technique known as _____
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“fast tracking”
What is a footing?
That part of the building that rests on the bearing soil and is wider than the foundation wall
Wall footings can take several forms, such as:
– Increased thickness of a floor slab at its edges (known as a monolithic floor); aka reinforced slab
-A widened strip of concrete under a wall that supports a raised floor with a crawl space; aka craw space
A widened strip of concrete under full story high walls that create a full or partial basement; aka basement
Is a square pad of concrete that supports a column
Column footing
Type of footing that consists of layers of beams placed at right angles to each other that are usually encased in concrete
- Grillage footing; is used when a column footing is supporting a large load
- The beams that make up the grillage footing distribute the load of the column over the area of the footing
There are several ways tactical firefighters can develop knowledge of building construction in their jurisdiction:
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One way is to obtain information through the building permit process.(This method is particularly useful in the case of large structures such as hospitals, shopping malls, exhibition halls, and high-rise buildings)
A second means of developing knowledge of building construction is through pre-incident (pre-fire) planning.
Geographic information systems (GIS) are another means of obtaining, analyzing, and using data based on location.
Pre-incident plans include information regarding
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occupancy, industrial process, hazardous materials, fire protection systems, building access, and utilities.
— Act of preparing to handle an incident at a particular location or a particular type of incident before an incident occurs.
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Pre-incident Planning
Also called Pre-fire Planning, Preplanning, Pre-fire Inspection, or Pre-incident Inspection
Fundamental to the pre-incident planning process is information about a building’s construction. This includes the
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construction type (i.e., wood frame, fire-resistive), location of fire walls, vertical openings, roof construction, exits, and any smoke control systems that may be provided.
A floating foundation is the same as a mat foundation except
The floating foundation is located beneath a building at a depth such that the weight of the soil removed is equal to the weight of the building
Inspection of the construction takes place ______ and _________ of a project. Inspections are performed by the ____________ and by the building department.
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during and upon completion
architect or the architect’s representative
As construction nears completion, the _______ makes a final inspection.
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architect
In _____, the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law in the US.
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1990
The following impairments qualify as disabilities under the Act: (ADA)
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(My Nuts Have Very Little Sperm)
- Vision impairments • Hearing impairments • Learning
* Speech • Neuromuscular impairments • Mental illness
The use of timber for piles is limited by what several factors?
The possibility of decay and the length of available trees from which timbers are cut
What are piles?
Used to support loads, piles are driven into the ground and develop their load carrying ability either through friction with the surrounding soil, or by being driven into contact with rock or a load bearing soil layer
What are Piers?
Load supporting member constructed by drilling or digging a shaft, then filling the shaft with concrete
2 examples of an Area of refuge is:
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(1) Area where persons who are unable to use stairs can temporarily wait for instructions or assistance during an emergency building evacuation.
(2) Space in the normal means of egress protected from fire by an approved sprinkler system, by means of separation from other spaces within the same building by smoke proof walls, or by virtue of location in an adjacent building.
Where required, the areas of refuge must be equipped with __________ so individuals can call for assistance.
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two-way communication
Foundation design issue sloping ground
And unusual problem arises when a building is to be built on sloping ground. This situation often occurs with beachfront property or property located on the side of the canyon or steep slope. As the slope of the ground increases, the foundation design becomes more critical. When the ground slopes angle is severe, piles or piers are placed in more dense lower soils.These deep elements act as a vertical cantilevers to resist the lateral force exerted by the building. The vertical elements are connected with a tie beam
Concerns with energy efficiency, for example, result in buildings with dual-pane windows and tighter fitting doors and seals. These affect the speed with which firefighters can _____ a ______and the ______ of _____ within a building.
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ventilate a building
rate of combustion
These _____ ______ affect building design in such fundamental matters as building height and in determining whether or not a basement is practical.
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soil properties
Indications of a shift in the foundation wall?
- Any vertical or horizontal misalignment along the length of a crack in the foundation wall indicates a movement or shift in the structure
- When a structure is inspected for stability, any change in size or extension of cracks or fissures should be given close attention
What is the significance if there is a shift in the structure?
It may mean a change in the imposition of loads on structural members
Besides concrete, what other materials can foundation walls be constructed with?
Concrete block, stone, or brick
If wood is to be used for foundation walls, what must it be treated with?
Preservatives to resist decay
What type of buildings are wood foundations used with
Wood foundations are used with wood frame buildings
The overall design of a building, as well as the individual details, is determined by
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available funds
What are the advantages of expanded polystyrene(EPS)
The expanded polystyrene conserves he in cold climates and reduces the energy needed for air-conditioning in warm climates. The use of EPS also permits foundations to be dug to shallower depths resulting in a cost savings. This is due to the fact that the reduced heat transfer through the EPS to the surrounding soil results in a frost line that is closer to the surface
After buildings are constructed, they will move either because of
Various unforeseen factors or as a result of construction defects
What are the three types of movements that a building can suffer?
Downward as in the case of settlement, upward as in the case of heaving, or outward as in the case of lateral displacement
What is the most frequent type of building movement?
Settlement- downward movement
What are the two types of Settlement foundations
Uniform or differential
What is uniform settlement?
Parts of a foundation settle at the same rate and misalignment between structural members is minor
What is differential settlement?
Takes place when different parts of the foundation settle by different amounts and is more troublesome than uniform settlement, because it can result in significant misalignment of structural members
Differential settlement of a foundation can result from what several conditions?
-Non-uniform soil conditions under the foundation
– Footings a different size
– Footings placed a different elevations
– Unequal loads on footings
Process of strengthening an existing foundation and refers to permanent supports
Underpinning
The need for underpinning can result from what several causes
-Excessive settlement because of an in adequate foundation
- An increase in the load on a foundation because of the construction of additional stories
– Erosion of soil from under or around the foundation
What is shoring?
- General term used for lengths of timber, screw jacks, hydraulic and pneumatic jacks, and other devices that can be used as temporary support for formwork or structural components or used to hold sheeting against trench walls.
- Individual supports are called Shores, cross braces, and struts
- shoring an existing structure is frequently necessary to support the structure until underpinning can be put into place
Why is the placement of shoring and underpinning difficult and dangerous?
It frequently involves excavation by hand because it may not be possible to position power equipment when the work is done in limited spaces such as basements. If a collapse occurs in connection with this work, the fire department typically is called upon to conduct a rescue operation. Such rescue operations always require extreme caution and coordination
Group of people, usually five to seven, with experience in fire prevention, building construction, and/or
code enforcement legally constituted to arbitrate differences of opinion between fire inspectors and building officials, property owners, occupants or builders
Ch.1
Board of Appeals
A building permit is obtained from the local
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building department
________ is such an important concern to an architect that it frequently clashes with fire safety concerns.
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Aesthetics
the possibility of communication of fire should always be included in _____ _____.
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pre-incident planning.
Currently the most widely used model building code in the US is the _______ published by the ____________.
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International Building Code (IBC)
International Code Council Incorporated
The International Building Code is the successor to three earlier model codes:
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- The Uniform Building Code (UBC) published by the International Council of Building Officials (ICBO).
- The Standard Building Code published by the Southern Building Code Congress International.
- The BOCA National Building Code published by the Building Officials and Code Administrators International.
The International Building Code has a companion fire code, the ________.
Both the fire and building codes must be used together during ___________.
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International Fire Code
facility design
Some jurisdictions may adopt and use codes developed by the National Fire Protection Association (such as __________, and ___________ and _______ .
NFPA® 1, Uniform Fire Code
NFPA® 5000, Building Construction
Safety Code
Distance from the street line to the front of a building
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Setback
Line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels.
Wildland/Urban interface
In the wildland/urban interface, fire communication to exposures can be from:
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shake (wood) roofs, open vents, exterior sidings, and vegetation
Transfer of heat by the movement of heated fluids or gases, usually in an upward direction.
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Convection
The desire to renovate older buildings in some urban areas can result in unique efforts at change of occupancy. A few typical examples include:
• A church converted into _____
• A storm window manufacturing plant into a _______
• Parking facility converted to a ______
• Two-story factory converted to a
• Multistory industrial buildings converted to _____
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condominiums community theater flea market shopping mall condominiums with parking
Branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste.
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Aesthetics
Without oversight by a building department, buildings can be weakened if work is performed without regard to proper methods. Examples of these structural problems include the following:
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- Removal or penetration of bearing walls • Modification of beams or trusses • Structural overloading of roofs • Creation of mezzanine floors in attic spaces • Rooftop additions
- Remodeling that creates additional voids, such as suspended ceilings
- Illegal remodeling or overloading that poses extreme hazards
The actual construction process requires ____ and ______.
coordination and scheduling
In a fast-track project, the _____ and _______phases overlap
design and construction
A commonly adopted NFPA® code is
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the Life Safety Code (NFPA® 101)
Specific fire safety provisions include requirements for the following elements:
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- Structural fire resistance
- Flammability of interior finishes
- Adequacy of means of egress
- Enclosure of vertical openings
- Fire protection systems
- Exposure protection
- Occupancy separation
Occupant safety must also be considered in the following areas:
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- Design of stairs and walking surfaces
- Balcony railings
- Overhead obstacles
- Electrical wiring
- Elevator operation
There are several ways tactical firefighters can develop knowledge of building construction in their jurisdiction:
ch1
One way is to obtain information through the building permit process.
Preincident plans include information regarding
ch1
occupancy, industrial process, hazardous materials, fire protection systems, building access, and utilities.
— Act of preparing to handle an incident at a particular location or a particular type of incident before an incident occurs.
ch1
Preincident Planning
Also called Prefire Planning, Preplanning, Prefire Inspection, or Preincident Inspection
Fundamental to the preincident planning process is information about a building’s construction. This includes the
ch1
construction type (i.e., wood frame, fire-resistive), location of fire walls, vertical openings, roof construction, exits, and any smoke control systems that may be provided.
Building built without a tenant or occupant
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Spec Building — (short for speculation).
Inspection of the construction takes place ______ and _________ of a project. Inspections are performed by the ____________ and by the building department
during and upon completion
architect or the architect’s representative
In _____, the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law in the US.
1990
The following impairments qualify as disabilities under the Act: (ADA)
ch1
My Nuts Have Very Little Sperm
- Vision impairments • Hearing impairments • Learning
* Speech • Neuromuscular impairments • Mental illness
Some of the specific building elements that must be designed to accommodate individuals with restricted abilities include the following:
CH1
• Building entrances • Parking and passenger loading zones • Elevators
*Drinking fountains • Toilet facilities
• Alarms (visible and/or audible) • Telephones • Automated teller machines • Means of egress
Manual fire alarm stations must be not more than __ feet and not less than ____ feet above the floor level so they can be reached from a wheelchair.
ch1
41⁄2
31⁄2
People who are unable to use the stairs for emergency evacuation must be provided with alternate protection such as an _____ of _____.
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area of refuge
Term used to describe the incorporation of such environmental principles as energy efficiency and environmentally friendly building materials into design and construction.
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Green Design
Concerns with energy efficiency, for example, result in buildings with dual-pane windows and tighter fitting doors and seals. These affect the speed with which firefighters can _____ a ______and the ______ of _____ within a building.
ventilate a building
rate of combustion
These _____ ______ affect building design in such fundamental matters as building height and in determining whether or not a basement is practical
soil properties
The transmission or transfer of heat energy from one body to another body at a lower temperature through intervening space by electromagnetic waves.
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thermal radiation
________ communication of fire is mainly due to thermal radiation.
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Horizontal
Fire spread is often the result of ____ ____.
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radiant heat
In earlier times, the appearance of a building was determined by the ____ _____ in its construction.
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materials used
When a decision is made to design and construct a building, the designer has many factors to consider in reaching a satisfactory result. These include the following:
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- Fiscal resources (cost) • Building use • Aesthetic tastes • Building codes
- Safety • Accessibility
- Climate • Infrastructure • Soil conditions • The physical laws of engineering • The owner’s needs and desires
The ______ usually functions as the prime designer who has the responsibility and control to choose major aspects of the building and to eliminate alternatives.
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architect
The erection of buildings involves several branches of engineering and all of the building trades. In addition to architecture, the major technical specialties and their functions include the following:
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Civil engineering, Structural engineering, Mechanical engineering, Electrical engineering, Fire protection engineering
• Civil engineering
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— Water supply — Sanitary sewers — Surveying— Site preparation and excavation
— Roadways — Storm water drainage
• Mechanical engineering
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— Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning — Pumping systems — Elevators — Plumbing systems
• Structural engineering
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— Determination of loads — Foundation design — Structural behavior
— Structural members
— Structural erection
• Electrical engineering
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— Lighting — Power — Communications
• Fire protection engineering
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— Automatic sprinklers — Standpipes — Fire alarm — Smoke control — Code compliance
The finishing touch in the design process is
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landscaping
Testing is performed on certain materials, systems, and components such as ____, _____ and _____ ____. The _____ ___ is usually involved in the testing of the fire protection systems in new construction.
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concrete, fire pumps, and emergency generators
fire department
The primary role of the ___ _____is to ensure proper installation and operation of the fire protection systems
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fire inspector
The actual system tests are carried out by representatives of the _____ _____.
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installing contractor
______ ______ alone is not the only factor in determining if a fire can communicate to an exposed building. The area, namely the _____ and ______, of the exposing flame is also a factor.
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Flame temperature
height and width
Flames emitting from a window in a masonry wall can expose an adjacent building. As the area of the opening increases in size, the amount of ____ ______increases
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thermal radiation
NFPA ___ Recommended Practice for Protection from Exterior Fire Exposure, describes three levels of exposure based on the potential severity of the exposing fire. The standard classifies the levels of exposure as
80A
light, moderate, or severe
There are a number of methods used to protect buildings from exposing fires, including the following:
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• Clear space between buildings • Fire suppression systems such as water-based sprinkler systems and fire-
retardant distribution systems • Blank walls of noncombustible construction • Self-supporting barrier walls between the fire building and the exposure • Parapets on exterior masonry walls • Automatic outside deluge systems • Elimination of openings in exterior walls • Glass block panels in openings • Wired glass in steel sash windows • Automatic fire shutters or dampers on wall openings • Automatic fire doors on door openings
the possibility of communication of fire should always be included in _____ _____.
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preincident planning.
In engineering, _____ is said to occur when a structure or part “is no longer capable of performing its required function in a satisfactory manner.” Depending on what a structure is designed for, failure could mean:
failure
excessive vibration, deflection, noise, or wear.
Potential sources of building failure under fire conditions can include some or all of the following:
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• Structural integrity • Building systems • Design deficiencies
The collapse of a building under fire conditions is a result of the loss of a building’s _____ _______
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structural integrity
_____ ______materials possess the ability to maintain structural integrity
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Fire-resistive
Specific building systems include heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); _____ __; communications; _____; and transportation such as _____ and ____.
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electrical power
plumbing
elevators and conveyors
The term ____ ____ in this text refers to a failure to provide a level of fire safety appropriate to the ultimate use of the building.
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design deficiencies
One very basic aspect of building safety is the provision of an adequate number of ____. This number is determined by the number of persons likely to occupy a building, subject to building code provisions for occupancy classifications.
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exits
A building’s _____ must facilitate its end use.
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design
The desire to renovate older buildings in some urban areas can result in unique efforts at change of occupancy. A few typical examples include:
• A church converted into _____
• A storm window manufacturing plant into a _______
• Parking facility converted to a ______
• Two-story factory converted to a
• Multistory industrial buildings converted to _____
ch1
condominiums community theater flea market shopping mall condominiums with parking
Branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste.
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Aesthetics
Aesthetics is such an important concern to an architect that it frequently clashes with fire ____ _____.
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safety concerns
If the existing water mains cannot supply the required flow, it would be necessary to either ____ ____ __ of the mains or provide for ___ _____and fire pumps.
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increase the size
on-site storage
If ____ ____ ____ are not readily accessible, a well and storage tank may be necessary.
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public water mains
The final building design always involves a balance of :
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what is desired, what is needed, and what is practical
Minor renovations such as adding an _____ ______ also need to be performed by licensed contractors.
electrical receptacle
Any load that is not fixed or permanent. Can include wind and seismic loads, the term is usually applied to building contents, occupants, and the weight of snow or rain on the roof.
Live load
*Another definition is: force placed upon a structure by the addition of people, objects, or whether.
A load that is applied at one point or over a small area
Concentrated load
Building codes require that a specified_____be used in the structural analysis when it creates greater load effects than the uniform load.
Minimum concentrated load
The load exerted on a roof from the weight of snow is known as the:
Snow load
Can vary from virtually none in the southern states to 60 pounds per square foot in some areas such as northern Michigan. The amount of snow that accumulates on the roof also depends on the slope or shape of the roof and the effect of adjacent structures.
_____Roofs are especially vulnerable to the accumulated weight of snow.
Poorly maintained
_____Is used as a starting point in calculating the snow load on a roof.
The snow load expected on the ground
Frequently, the snow load calculated for a roof may be on the order of:
20 or 30 pounds per square foot
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Water from firefighting operations can add an additional:
Live load
Most of the water will drain from upper floors by way of elevator shafts and stairwells
In addition to their origin, the loads applied two buildings may be classified as:
Static or dynamic
Static load-loads that are steady, motionless, constant, or applied gradually. The dead load of the building, the snow load, and many live loads are static loads.
dynamic load-loads that involve motion. they include the forces arising from wind, moving vehicles, earthquakes, vibration, falling objects, as well as the addition of a moving load force to an aerial device or structure, also called shock loading.
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Dynamic loads different from static loads in that they are capable of:
Delivering energy to a structure in addition to the weight of an object.
The basic equation for kinetic energy is:
E=1/2 mv2
Dynamic loads have the ability to cause failure after
Repeated cycles
An example of this is the deterioration of a garage floor because of the repeated impact loads created by the movement of heavy vehicles.
When the support provided by a structural system is equal to the applied loads, a condition known as_____exists:
Equilibrium
A building collapses or partially collapses when the applied loads exceed the ability of the structural system to support them. The collapse represents a loss of equilibrium. In a sense, when the building becomes a pile of debris on the ground, equilibrium is reestablished.
The forces that resist the applied loads are known as:
Reactions
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The loads and forces applied to a structural member create_____within the member.
Internal forces
Proper design requires an evaluation of the internal forces to prevent failure in the form of cracking, crumbling, bending, or breaking.
A beam that is supported at one end is known as a:
Cantilever beam
Another definition is: projecting beam or slab supported at one end.
In addition to the vertical force, the support bracket must also resist a bending force. This bending force is known as a_____and is equal to the force multiplied by the distance at which the_____is applied.
Bending moment
That is the answer for both blanks
Page 87
Exterior loads can create different kinds of interior forces in materials. The interior forces are classified according to the direction in which they occur in the material. There are three of them:
Tension, compression, shear
Tension-tends to pull the material apart
Compression-tends to squeeze the material
Shear-tends to slide one plane of a material past an adjacent plane
Those vertical or horizontal forces that tend to pull things apart; for example, the force exerted on the bottom cord of a truss.
Tension
A material such as concrete has good compressive strength but little_____strength.
Tensile strength
A measurement of force intensity and is expressed as force units divided by the area over which the force is applied:
Stress
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The magnitude of the interior forces that occur in structural members is evaluated by a quantity known as:
Stress
Loads are classified according to the:
Direction in which they occur in the material.
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Point at which material ceases to perform satisfactorily. Depending on the application this can be breaking, permanent Deformation, excessive deflection, or vibration.
Failure point
Because many factors used in design cannot be known precisely, a_____is used. They provide for variations in the properties of the construction materials, the workmanship, and the live and dead loads.
Factor of safety
A factor of safety is the ratio of the failure point of the material to the maximum design stress
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Exterior loads can be classified as ____,____, or____ according to the manner in which they are applied.
Axial, eccentric, or torsional
Axial load-load applied to the center of the cross-section of a member and perpendicular to that cross-section. It can be either tensile or compressive and creates uniform stresses across the cross-section of the material.
Eccentric load-is a load that is perpendicular to the cross-section of the structural member but does not pass through the center of the cross-section. An eccentric load create stresses that vary across the cross-section and maybe both tensile and compressive.
Torsional load-is offset from the center of the cross-section of the structural member and at an angle to or in the same plane as the cross-section. A torsional load produces a twisting effect that creates shear stresses in a material.
Under fire conditions, loads can change because of the_____released by the fire.
Thermal energy
Firefighters must understand that structures and individual structural members are designed to support specific loads
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Compression forces cause a_____effect:
Squeeze
Axial loads are applied along the members axis. Eccentric loads are applied to one side of the cross-section, creating a bending tendency. Torsional loads are applied at an angle to the cross-section creating a twisting tendency.
There is no answer for this note card. It was just a tidbit of info
Structural members can expand, SAG, twist, or simply Burn away. As the structural components become distorted, the loads with in a building can shift and exert additional forces on adjacent members. Loads that were originally axial can become either eccentric or torsional. These shifting loads increase:
The probability of failure
Page 90
Larger structural systems can be constructed from several basic components. Including some of the following: there are seven of them
Beams
Columns
Arches
Cables
Trusses
Spaceframes
Connectors
Structural member subjected to loads, usually vertical, perpendicular to its length.
Beam
Another definition: a beam is a structural member that can carry loads perpendicular to it’s a longitudinal dimension.
A beam that is supported at each end and is free to rotate at the ends.
Simply supported beam
A wood joist resting on a masonry wall is an example of a simply supported beam.
A beam that is supported at one end:
Cantilever beam
These beams are often used to support balconies
Beams can also be continuous across several supports or restrained at both ends. Restrained beams are rigidly supported at each end. Under fire conditions, a rigidly supported beam will tend to:
Retain its load bearing ability longer than a simply supported beam.
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Beams can be made of:
Wood, steel, or reinforced concrete
The primary design consideration of beams is their ability to:
Resist bending from the applied the loads
In a beam the maximum tension or compression stresses are in the:
At the middle of the beam, a point known as the_____, the tension and compression stresses are actually zero.
Top and bottom. The top is under compression and the bottom is under tension.
Neutral axis
The top and bottom portions of the beam do most of the work resisting the bending movement.
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Some of the material can be removed from the middle of the beam cross-section without greatly affecting:
The strength of the beam
This increases the fishing use of material and reduces the weight of the beam. It is this engineering principle that results in many beams being constructed in the shape of the letter I.
In an I-beam, the top and bottom portions of the beam are known as the top and bottom:
Flanges
Because the top and bottom flanges of an I-beam support most of the load, any alteration of the flanges, such as cutting the top flange of a wooden I-beam, can have the effect of greatly reducing its strength.
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Tall beams are capable of supporting greater loads and short beams, even if they have the same:
Cross-sectional area
Structural members designed to support an axial compressive load. They are not primarily designed to withstand stresses due to bending.
Columns
The stresses created within a column are primarily compressive
Another definition: vertical supporting beam
Columns can be made of: there are five of them
Wood, steel, cast-iron, concrete, or masonry
In cases of failure, tall, thin columns fail by buckling and short, squatty columns fail by crushing.
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A curved structural member in which the interior stresses are primarily compressive. They produce inclined forces at their end supports, which the supports must resist.
Arches
Arches are used to carry loads _______, and have application as support for roofs and entrances in masonry buildings.
Across a distance
Vertical loads applied to an arch create inclined reactions at there:
Supports
If the end supports of an arch are removed, the arch becomes unstable
To provide for minor adjustments, arches are sometimes designed with:
Hinges
Arches can be constructed of: there are four of them
Masonry
Steel
Concrete
Laminated wood
Can be thought of as flexible structural members that can be used to support roofs, brace tents, and restrain pneumatic structures.
Cables
Although cables can be used in applications where they are a sensually Street, a cable used to support loads over a distance will assume the shape of a para bola.
The stresses and cables are:
Cables are usually made of:
Tension stresses
Steel strands, although aluminum may be used where weight is a critical factor
Structural member used to form a roof or floor framework. They form triangles or combinations of triangles to provide maximum load bearing capacity with a minimum amount of material; often rendered dangerous by exposure to intense heat, which weakens gusset plate attachment.
Trusses
Only compressive or tensile stresses will affect the members of the trusts
Another definition: framed structural units made up of a group of triangles in one plane.
A true truss is made only of:
Straight members
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Some types of roof trusses, such as the bowstring truss, have a:
Curved top chord
These curved members are unavoidably subjected to bending forces
The_____of an arch roof allows the roof to make minor adjustments while bending.
Hinge
When a cable is used to support loads, it will assume the shape of a:
Parabola
Pg95
The top members of a truss are called:
The bottom members of a truss are called:
The diagonal members of a truss are called:
Top cords
Bottom chords
Diagonals or web members
The joints may be formed by pin connections, welding, gusset plates, strap connectors, or structural adhesive.
Trusses may be made of:
Would
Steel
A combination of wood and steel
Geometrically speaking, the triangle provides an:
Inherently rigid frame
Names of common roof trusses:
King post, inverted king post, inverted queen post, howe, Pratt, fink, camebered fink, scissors, hammer beam trus, Warren truss, saw tooth, bowstring, K truss, truss with monitor
Typical truss shapes are available to span distances of____to____.
22 to 70 feet
But in today’s construction truss spans in excess of 100 feet or not uncommon
Trusses are a commonly used:
Most trusses are:
Structural member
Pre-fabricated
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Trusses also have the advantage of being able to span an equal distance using less material and:
Being lighter than a comparable beam
Lightweight wood or metal trusses, known as_____, have become very common in floor construction, taking the place of solid joists.
Truss joists
Lightweight wood trusses are also commonly used in roof construction.
From the firefighting standpoint, trusses have the potential for:
Early failure under adverse conditions.
This is due to the fact that failure of any portion of the top or bottom chords result in a failure of the truss. Lightweight steel trusses, known as bar joists, are also used for floor and roof construction and fire resistive and noncombustible construction.
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What kind of trusses are especially prone to failure?
Lightweight trusses
Roof trusses that are even lighter in weight than steel bar joists are available. In effect, these trusses are made of:
Galvanized steel studs or channels similar to them, and assembled with self drilling screws.
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Truss structures that are developed in three dimensions:
Space frames
Space frames are well-suited to support uniformly distributed loads
Would truss members can be connected by pins or bolts, gusset plates, adhesives, brackets, and metal straps. The members of steel trusses can be joined using:
Steel gusset plates
Rivets
Or welds
The____in truss assemblies are a critical part of the truss.
Connectors
Failure of a connector will result in failure of the truss. Quality control and manufacture of trusses can affect the behavior of trusses under fire conditions.
An almost infinite number of structural designs can be created. As with building types,____and____result in a number of commonly encountered structural systems.
Practical necessity
Economics
Wall that supports its self and the weight of the roof and or other internal structural framing components such as the floor beams above it.
Bearing wall
A common method of construction uses the walls of the building to support spanning elements such as: there are three of them
Beams
Trusses
Precast concrete slabs
These are appropriately known as bearing wall structures.
The bearing walls are usually the____walls with interior support system consisting of columns and beams.
Exterior walls
However, it is possible to use interior walls for structural support.
Bearing walls provide____support to the structure along the direction of the wall.
Lateral
And a bearing wall structure, the walls are subjected to _____ loads.
Compressive
The walls may be continuous or they may be interrupted for door and window openings.
Materials used for bearing walls include: there are four of them
Concrete masonry units
Bricks
Stone
Concrete panels
A log cabin is an example of the use of solid wood for a bearing wall
In a frame structure, structural support is provided in a manner similar to the way the:
Skeleton supports the human body
The walls act as the skin to enclose the frame. The walls may also provide lateral stiffness but provide no structural support
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In addition to the framing associated with wood construction, other types of structural frame construction include the following: there are five of them
Steel stud wall framing
Post and beam construction
Rigid frames
Slab and column frames
Truss frames
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Steel stud wall construction uses relatively closely spaced __________________ connected by top and bottom horizontal members.
Vertical steel studs
Historically, stud wall frame construction has been associated with the use of 2 x 4” wood studs although the use of steel studs has become more common in recent years
When the exterior and interior of a stud wall are covered with paneling or sheathing a_____results.
Rigid wall panel
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Post and beam construction uses a series of vertical elements (the posts) to support the horizontal elements (the beams) that are subject to:
Transverse loads
The distinctive characteristic of post and beam framing is the spacing of the vertical posts in the cross-sectional dimension of the members. The vertical posts maybe spaced up to____inches apart, unlike stud wall construction where the studs are___to___Inches apart. The minimum dimensions used for wood posts and beams are larger than the studs instead wall construction.
24in
12 to 16in
Typical dimensions for the posts are 6 x 8in when supporting roofs only. Post and beam construction requires the addition of other members such as diagonal braces to withstand lateral loads.
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When the joints between a column and a beam are reinforced so bending stresses can be transmitted through the joints, the structural system is known as a:
Rigid frame
The most easily recognized rigid frame structure is the single-story, gabled roof and rigid frame building
This type of rigid frame can be constructed of steel, laminated wood, or reinforced concrete.
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Because the joints are intended to transmit bending stresses, firefighter should pay particular attention to their design. The joints usually must be reinforced and will be the ____ portion of the assembly to fail under fire conditions.
Last
It is possible to build components of a frame using a series of trusses, as with the:
Arch and the rigid frame
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Slab and column frames are most frequently encountered in:
Concrete structures.
The floors of a multi story, reinforced concrete building are concrete slab. These floor slabs are supported by concrete columns. The intersection between the slab and column is a region of high stress and usually is reinforced by additional material in the form of a capital or a drop panel.
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System of construction in which the building consist primarily of enclosing surface and in which the stress resulting from the applied loads occur within the surface bearing wall structures.
Surface system
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Structure within an enclosing surface of a thin stretched flexible material. Examples of these are a simple tent or an air supported structure.
Membrane structure
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A membrane structure can be distinguished from a simple tent by its:
Permanence
Tents are used for short periods; membrane structures are permanent. Building codes typically address membrane structures with a life of 180 days or more, while fire codes address those to be used for less than 180 days.
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Membrane structures possess several design advantages. The fabrics used for roofs on membrane structures weigh less than other roof systems. Fabric roofs weigh only about___pounds per square foot.
2lbs
Membrane structures can usually be erected in less time than a rigid structural system. In addition, the fabrics used can flex and absorb some of the stresses caused by seismic and wind forces.
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Rigid, three-dimensional structure having an outer skin thickness that is small compared to other dimensions.
Shell structure
Shell structures lend themselves to regular geometric shapes such as: there are four of them
Cones
Domes
Barrel vaults
And folded plates
Shell structures are most commonly constructed of:
Concrete
Although it is possible to construct them using plywood or fiberglass.
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A power station cooling tower is an example of a:
Shell structure
A variety of structural components are available to the engineer to support the applied loads. These components, which include____,____,____,___, support loads in different ways.
Beams
Arches
Trusses
And columns
It must be emphasized that under fire conditions, the loads and stresses exerted on the structural system are subject to change in magnitude and direction resulting in structural failure.
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To the firefighter, the most significant characteristic of a building is not its architectural style but how it behaves ____ _______ ________.
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under fire conditions
All _____ ____ classify buildings by construction type. These classifica- tions are based on two attributes of building construction: _______ and ______.
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building codes
fire resistance and combustibility
_____ ________ determines the likelihood of structural collapse under fire conditions. ____ ______ nature of a building’s structural system will impact the rate of fire growth.
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Fire resistance
The combustible
Fire-resistive buildings permit firefighters to make a more aggressive ______ _______ than they can make in non-fire resistive buildings. Fire-resistive buildings also provide an increased degree of ___ ______.
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interior attack
occupant safety
— Rating assigned to a material or an assembly after standardized testing by an independent testing organization that identifies the amount of time a material or assembly of materials will resist a typical fire as measured on a standard time-temperature curve.
Fire resistance rating
From a fire protection standpoint, one of the most basic properties of building materials is their degree of ___ ____.
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fire resistance
Fire resistance is a function of the properties of all materials used, including combustibility, ______ ____, chemical composition, ____, and dimensions.
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thermal conductivity
density
_____ ____ is the ability of a structural assembly to maintain its load-bearing capacity and structural integrity under fire conditions.
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Fire resistance
The fire resistance of structural components can be evaluated quantitatively and is known as the:
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fire resistance rating
Building codes will have requirements for the fire resistance of structural elements such as the following:
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- Beams
- Columns
- Walls and partitions
- Floor and ceiling assemblies
- Roof and ceiling assemblies
A building code will typically require that columns supporting the floors in a fire-resistive building have a fire resis- tance rating of __ hours
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3
The walls enclosing an exit stairwell, which may or may not be load bear- ing, typically must have a fire-resistive rating of __ or __hours to protect the stairwell
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1 or 2
There are three means by which the fire resistance of structural assemblies can be determined:
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- Conducting standard fire resistance testing in a laboratory
- Performing analytical calculations to determine the resistance to a standard fire test exposure
- Employing analytical structural fire engineering design methods based on real fire exposure characteristics.
the most commonly used method of determining fire resistance is by _____ ______.
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laboratory test
The earliest known fire tests on building materials were conducted in _______ in _______. (2) In the United States the first known fire tests were conducted in _____, ______ in ______.
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Germany in 1884-86
Denver, Colorado in 1890
_______, Standard Method of Tests of Fire Endurance of Building Construction and Materials. It is also designated as ASTM E-119.
NFPA® 251
In the standard fire test, the furnace temperature is regulated to conform to a standard ___ _____ _____.
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time-temperature curve
In the test furnace a temperature of _____ is reached at five minutes and ______ after 30 minutes. At one hour the temperature is ______.
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1,000°F
1,550°F
1,700°F
The fire resistance ratings for floor and ceiling assemblies are developed for both ________ and ____ assemblies.
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restrained and unrestrained
______ affect the extent to which an assembly may expand or rotate at its ends when exposed to high temperatures, affecting its ability to support a load.
Restraints
restrained assemblies
When a structural specimen is tested, the test is continued until the specimen ___ or the specified ____ _____ for which the specimen being tested is reached.
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fails
fire endurance
Normally, assemblies are not tested beyond ___ hours because this is the maximum time required by the building codes.
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four
The primary points of failure for the test are as follows:
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(The specific failure criteria depend on the specimen being tested )
- Failure to support an applied load
- Temperature increase on the unexposed side of wall, floor, and roof assemblies of 250°F above ambient temperatures
- Passage of heat or flame through the assembly sufficient to ignite cotton waste
- Excess temperature on steel members*
Independent fire research and testing laboratory with headquarters in Northbrook, Illinois that certifies equipment and materials. Equipment and materials are approved only for the specific use for which it is tested.
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Underwriters Laboratories, inc. (UL) —
Although an assembly may fail at any point during the test, fire resistance ratings for test specimens, including fire doors and windows, are expressed in standard intervals such as 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 11⁄2 hours, 2 hours, 3 hours, and 4 hours. Thus, if a given assembly failed one hour and ten minutes into a test, its fire rating would be __ ___.
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one hour
It must be clearly understood that the fire-resistance ratings are established using a ____ ____ ___ ____.
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standard laboratory test fire
ASTM Standard ___, Standard Test Methods for Determining Effects of Large Hydrocarbon Pool Fires on Structural Members and Assemblies.
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(This test would be useful for evaluating the structural members used in such occupancies as petroleum refineries.)
1529
The ____test is the only method currently universally accepted by building codes.
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E-119
Solid materials, such as wood blocks, used to prevent or limit the vertical and horizontal spread of
fire and the products of combustion in hollow walls or floors, above false ceilings, in penetrations for plumbing or electrical installations, in penetrations of a fire-rated assembly, or in cocklofts and crawl spaces.
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Fire stop
It is important to remember that the standard test evaluates the ability of structural assemblies to carry a structural load and to act as a fire barrier. The test does not provide the following information:
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- Information about performance of assemblies constructed with components or lengths other than those tested
- Evaluation of the extent to which the assembly may generate smoke, toxic gases, or other products of combustion
- Measurement of the degree of control or limitation of the passage of smoke or products of combustion
- Fire behavior of joints between building elements such as floor-to-wall or wall-to-wall connections
- Measurement of flame spread over the surface of the tested material
- The effect on fire endurance of openings in an assembly such as electri- cal outlets and plumbing openings unless specifically provided for in the construction tested.
Joint systems for floor-to-wall and wall-to-wall connections are tested in accordance with UL Standard ____, “Standard for Fire Tests of Joint Systems.”
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2079
It is not uncommon over time for fire-resistive assemblies to be penetrated, which often occurs when buildings ____ ______.
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undergo renovation
The following are some of the organizations that perform fire-resistance testing:
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- Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
- Underwriters Laboratories of Canada
- Building Research Division of the National Research Council of Canada
- Southwest Research Institute
- Intertek Testing
- University of California at Berkeley, Forest Products Laboratory
- Armstrong Cork Company
- National Gypsum Company
______ _______ annually publishes a Fire tested and given fire-Resistance Directory, which lists assemblies that have been tested and their fire-resistance ratings.
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Underwriters Laboratories
ASCE/ SFPE ____, Standard Calculation Methods for Structural Fire Protection, provides the methods for calculating fire-resistance ratings that are equivalent to the results obtained from the standard fire test.
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29
are limited to use with:
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structural steel, plain and reinforced concrete, timber and wood, concrete masonry, and clay masonry
ASCE/ SFPE 29 calculation methods not provide accurate results when applied to materials that have not been used in the ___ ____.
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actual tests
In 1997, the ____ _____ _____ ___ (ASCE) and the ____ ____ _____ ____(SFPE) jointly developed a standard for the calcula- tion of fire resistance of structural elements.
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American Society of Civil Engineers
Society of Fire Protection Engineers
The _____ ____ standard time-temperature test is the most commonly used method of satisfying building code requirements for structural fire resistance.
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NFPA® 251
Incapable of supporting combustion under normal circumstances.
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Noncombustible
A _____ structure is classified as noncombustible; the lightweight wood construction that makes up the fast-food structure is classified as ________.
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concrete
combustible
Fundamentally, a ________ material is one that “in the form in which used and under the conditions anticipated, will not ignite, burn, support combustion, or release flammable vapors, when subjected to fire or heat.”
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noncombustible
The most commonly used test for determining combustibility is ____ ___, Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace at 750°C.
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ASTME 136
Buildings are grouped into five major classifications. These classifications are commonly designated as follows:
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- Type I, Fire-Resistive
- Type II, Noncombustible or protected noncombustible
- Type III, Exterior protected (masonry)
- Type IV, Heavy timber
- Type V, Wood frame
_____ ______ do not make use of the descriptive terms fire-resistive, noncombustible, masonry, or wood-frame because they do not fully define the construction types. The codes make use of the _____ ______ only. The descriptive terms are included here because they were used in the past and may still be used to describe buildings.
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Building codes
numerical designations
Bricks, blocks, stones, and unreinforced and reinforced concrete products.
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Masonry
The _______ _______ used in the building codes are based on the materials used in construction and the hourly fire-resistance ratings required for the structural components.
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building classifications
With the exception of ___ ____ ____ ___, the major classifications are further divided into two or three subclassifications.
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Type IV, Heavy Timber
NFPA® ____ , Standard on Types of Building Construction, details the require- ments for each of the classifications and subclassifications.
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220
In NFPA® 220, each classification is designated by a three-digit number code. For example, Type I construction can be either 4-4-3 or 3-3-2. The digits are explained as follows:
• The first digit refers to the fire-resistance rating (in hours) of ____ ____ ___.
• The second digit refers to the fire-resistance rating of ______ ______ or _____ and ______ that support loads of more than one floor.
• The third digit indicates the fire-resistance rating of the _____ ______.
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exterior bearing walls
structural frames or columns and girders
floor construction
In Type IV construction the designation ___ is used.
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2HH
Building codes use the types of construction and building occupancy, in connection with sprinkler systems and separations, to establish limits on the ____ and ____ of buildings.
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heights and areas
Steel is a _________ material but it is not fire-resistive and must be ______ to attain fire resistance.
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noncombustible
protected
Type I construction is divided into two subclassifications:
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I-A and I-B.
Generally, bearing walls, columns, and beams are required to have a fire resistance of __ to ___ hours, depending on the code and the construction classification. Floor construction is required to have a fire resistance of ___ or ____ hour.
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Type I
two to four
two or three
The roof deck and construction supporting the roof must have a fire resistance of ___ to ____hours.
che
type I
one to two
Some building codes contain a provision to omit the fire- resistive rating for a roof construction for some occupancies when the roof is located more than feet above the floor.
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Type I
20
The fire-resistive compartmentation provided by partitions and floors tends to ____ the ____ of fire through a building. These features provide time for ______ ____ and interior fire fighting.
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retard the spread
occupant evacuation
As a practical matter, building codes usually per- mit a limited use of combustible materials in Type I construction.Combustible materials typically are permitted for such uses as the following:
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- Roof coverings
- Interior floor finishes
- Interior wall finishes and trims
- Doors and door frames
- Window sashes and frames
- Platforms
- Nailing and furring strips
- Light-transmitting plastics
- Foam plastics subject to restrictions
_____ concrete increases its structural strength.
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Reinforcing
The two most common methods of constructing Type I buildings are by using:
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reinforced concrete or a protected steel frame
________ is an inherently noncombustible material with good thermal insulating properties.
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Concrete
Unprotected steel has no ___ ____. When steel is used in fire-resistive designs, it must be protected by an _____ ______.
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fire resistance
insulating material
The thickness of the _______ material can be varied to achieve dif- ferent fire ratings.
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insulating
_____ ____ can be either protected or unprotected.
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Type II construction (noncombustible)
The use of ______ ______ is the most common characteristic of unprotected, noncombustible construction
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unprotected steel
In Type II construction, structural steel is frequently provided with a degree of fire resistance that is less than that required for Type I construction. This has sometimes been referred to as protected ______ _______.
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noncombustible construction.
Type II construction has two subclassifications, designated ______ ______ .
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II-A and II-B
In II-A construction the structural components are required to have __ ___ fire resistance. In II-B construction structural components are ______.
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one-hour
unprotected
An unprotected, noncombustible building cannot be expected to provide _____ ______ under fire conditions
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structural stability
The point at which unprotected members will fail, however, depends on the following factors:
- Ceiling height of the building
- Size of the unprotected steel members
- Intensity and duration of the exposing fire
____ construction has been commonly referred to as “ordinary construc- tion.”
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Type III
