book chapter 1 (3)

Question 1

normative claim

Answer 1

says how things ought to be

Question 2

Descriptive claim

Answer 2

attempts to describe how things in fact are, without making any value judgements

Question 3

confirmation bias

Answer 3

The tendency we all have to look for, interpret, and recall evidence in ways that confirm and do not challenge our existing beliefs

Question 4

observer-expectancy effect

Answer 4

When a scientists expectation lead her to unconsciously influence the behavior of experimental subjects

e.g. Hans the horse which could do mathematics

Question 5

plagiarism

Answer 5

Consists of presenting somebody elses ideas, scientific results, or words as ones own work, intentionally or unintentionally, by not giving proper credit

Question 6

conflicts of interest

Answer 6

Financial or personal gains that may inappropriately influence scientific reserch, results or publications. Scientists are obligated to disclose any potential conflicts of interest

Question 7

ways to promotie scientific integrity:

Answer 7

Holding scientists accountable for their work.

Scientists should be open to criticisms of their work and to new ideas

(Governing scientists as individuals is) ingenuity (many ideas wouldve never come along without some creativity; most claims will be proven wrong anyways

Question 8

who (if not individual scientists) generate knowledge

Answer 8

Scientific communities

No matter how good the individual; science cannot be fully protected against the flaws inherent to human reasoning. Even the best

Question 9

one primal social norm in science is

Answer 9

Trust. Scientists trust in one another is the glue of scientific communities

For example: collaborative projects on climate change involve scientists with a range in different expertise, including climatologists, ecologists, physicists, statisticians and economists. None of these scientists alone possesses comprehensive expertise to understand the full range of evidence that bears on our understanding of anthropogenic climate change

Question 10

Replication

Answer 10

Doing it over and over and still getting the same results

Question 11

individual norms that protect against bias and flaws in reasoning

Answer 11

Integrity
openness (to criticism)
Ingenuity

Question 12

Social norms that protect against bias and flaws in reasoning

Answer 12

Trust

Skeptical evaluation

Diversity

Question 13

Three ways how science protects against flaws in reasoning

Answer 13

Individual norms

Social norms

methods of science

Question 14

theoretical claims

Answer 14

Claims made about entities, properties or occurrences that are not directly observable.

Question 15

Hypothesis

Answer 15

a conjectural statement based on limited data - a guess about what the world is like

Question 16

expectations

Answer 16

Are conjectural claims about observable phenomena based on some hypothesis

Question 17

Expectations do not regard just any potential observations…

Answer 17

but observations that scientists anticipate being able to make

We could say what we would expect to experience if we were in the middle of a black hole (given some hypothesis about black holes), but since we don’t expect to ever be making observations from inside a black hole, those expectations are useless.

Question 18

Observations include

Answer 18

Any information gained from the senses

Question 19

Data

Answer 19

Are public records produced by observation or by some measuring device

Question 20

superb-observational

Answer 20

access to what would otherwise be undetecable to use, given our sensory modalities

E,g, fMRI machine to show brain activity