BONUS : PSD TEXTES À TROUS Flashcards
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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⭐️[… …] enable us to organize our perceptions about people, freeing us from the burden of attending to all the characteristics of each person we meet. Once categories are created, they can have profound consequences. They can lead to […], ⭐️[..-.. ..], and the division of the world into ⭐️[… (…)] and ⭐️[… (…)].
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⭐️=TERMS AND ISSUES TO KNOW
⭐️[Social categories] enable us to organize our perceptions about people, freeing us from the burden of attending to all the characteristics of each person we meet. Once categories are created, they can have profound consequences. They can lead to [stereotyping], ⭐️[self-fulfilling prophecies], and the division of the world into ⭐️[ingroups] (endogroupes) and ⭐️[outgroups] (exogroupes).
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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A ⭐️[…-… …] (also called ⭐️[… …]) is “a process in which we find [… …] for our stereotypes [… … … … … … in …-… … … … … of …]”. This happens because our [… … … …]. An employer who, for example, expects the employees to be disloyal will likely treat them in a way that will [… … … … … … … …]. Early examples of the self-fulfilling prophecy are the Greek myths surrounding Oedipus. Oedipus fulfills the oracle’s prophecy that he will kill his father and marry his mother, by [… to … the …]. This can be called a self-fulfilling prophecy because it is […’ … that … the … … …].
A ⭐️[self-fulfilling prophecy] (also called ⭐️[Rosenthal effect]) is “a process in which we find [confirmation and proof] for our stereotypes by [unknowingly creating stereotypical behavior in out-group members through our treatment of them]”. This happens because our [beliefs influence our actions]. An employer who, for example, expects the employees to be disloyal will likely treat them in a way that will [elicit the very response he or she expects]. Early examples of the self-fulfilling prophecy are the Greek myths surrounding Oedipus. Oedipus fulfills the oracle’s prophecy that he will kill his father and marry his mother, by [striving to avoid the prophecy]. This can be called a self-fulfilling prophecy because it is [Oedipus’ actions that make the prophecy come true].
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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Choose between the 3 main concepts of the text :
PREJUDICE (Affective)
STEREOTYPE (Cognitive)
DISCRIMINATION (Behavioral)
…to categorise the following sentences :
A. Segregation, harassment, oppression, ridicule, etc.
B. Racist or sexist attitudes
Example : “My race is superior” “My sex is superior”
C. Example: “I like or don’t like black people”
A. DISCRIMINATION (Behavioral)
B. STEREOTYPE (Cognitive)
C. PREJUDICE (Affective)
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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Members of groups also provide judgments about their own group members (⭐️[…]) as well as judgments about the members of other groups (⭐️[…]).
Building upon existing linguistic relations between the French and the Belgians, Yzerbyt, et al. (2005) asked standard speakers (French), and non-standard speakers (Belgian) to rate the linguistic skills, competence, and warmth of both groups.
As predicted by the authors, French participants evaluated standard speakers :
1) as more [… …] than Belgians and
2) as more […] than […] ([…/…]).
They also evaluated non-standard speakers as more warm than competent ([endosterotype ?/exosterotype ?]). The [… …] were found in the Belgian population.
Members of groups also provide judgments about their own group members (⭐️[endostereotypes]) as well as judgments about the members of other groups (⭐️[exostereotypes]).
Building upon existing linguistic relations between the French and the Belgians, Yzerbyt, et al. (2005) asked standard speakers (French), and non-standard speakers (Belgian) to rate the linguistic skills, competence, and warmth of both groups.
As predicted by the authors, French participants evaluated standard speakers :
1) as more [skilled linguistically] than Belgians and
2) as more [competent] than [warm] ([endosteretotype]).
They also evaluated non-standard speakers as more warm than competent (exosterotype). The [same patterns] were found in the Belgian population.
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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MODERN THEORIES OF INTERGROUP BIAS
⭐️[… … …] was developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979. Tajfel and Turner proposed that there are three mental processes involved in evaluating others as “[…]” or “[…]” (i.e. “[…-…]” and “[…-…]”. These take place in a particular order :
-> ⭐️[Social …]
-> ⭐️[Social …]
-> ⭐️[Social …]
⭐️[Social identity theory] was developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979. Tajfel and Turner proposed that there are three mental processes involved in evaluating others as “[us]” or “[them]” (i.e. “[in-group]” and “[out-group]”. These take place in a particular order :
- > ⭐️[Social categorization]
- > ⭐️[Social identification]
- > ⭐️[Social comparison]
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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MODERN THEORIES OF INTERGROUP BIAS
“Us” versus “them” categorizations tend to create ⭐️[… …]. Part of the reason stems from the fact that a group (especially high in-group status) may view itself positively (⭐️[… …]) and view other groups negatively (⭐️[… …]).
“Us” versus “them” categorizations tend to create ⭐️[intergroup conflict]. Part of the reason stems from the fact that a group (especially high in-group status) may view itself positively (⭐️[ingroup favoritism]) and view other groups negatively (⭐️[outgroup derogation]).
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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MODERN THEORIES OF INTERGROUP BIAS
⭐️[… …] is when people (especially disadvantaged groups or [… … …]) tend to regard groups they do not belong to more […] than the groups of which they are members. Some theorists argue that this is an example or manifestation of how some people have unconsciously absorbed [… …].
In other words, because people have a tendency to justify the [… … …] (which usually consists of inequality among groups) and believe that it is […] and […], certain people from ⭐️[… … …] will accept and […] that inequality (for example, a black person would say “blacks are lazy whereas white persons are courageous” which combined ⭐️[… …] (first statement) and ⭐️[… …] (second statement).
⭐️[Outgroup favoritism] is when people (especially disadvantaged groups or [low status groups]) tend to regard groups they do not belong to more [positively] than the groups of which they are members. Some theorists argue that this is an example or manifestation of how some people have unconsciously absorbed [existing inequalities].
In other words, because people have a tendency to justify the [societal status quo] (which usually consists of inequality among groups) and believe that it is [fair] and [legitimate], certain people from ⭐️[low status groups] will accept and [internalize] that inequality (for example, a black person would say “blacks are lazy whereas white persons are courageous” which combined ⭐️[ingroup derogation] (first statement) and ⭐️[outgroup favoritism] (second statement).
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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MODERN THEORIES OF INTERGROUP BIAS
The most prominent example of negative affect towards an ingroup was recorded in 1939 by Mamie and Kenneth B. Clark (1947) using their now famous “Dolls Test”. In this test African American children were asked to [… … … …] from a choice of [… … … … … dolls]. A [… … …] of these African American children indicated a preference for the [… dolls].
The most prominent example of negative affect towards an ingroup was recorded in 1939 by Mamie and Kenneth B. Clark (1947) using their now famous “Dolls Test”. In this test African American children were asked to [pick their favorite doll] from a choice of [otherwise identical black and white dolls]. A [disturbingly high percentage] of these African American children indicated a preference for the [white dolls].
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PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
According to Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner 1979), successful intergroup bias creates or protects relatively ⭐️[… …-… …], thereby providing a positive social identity for ingroup members and satisfying their need for ⭐️[… …-…].
According to Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner 1979), successful intergroup bias creates or protects relatively ⭐️[high in-group status], thereby providing a positive social identity for ingroup members and satisfying their need for ⭐️[positive self-esteem].
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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The ⭐️[… … …] is a methodology proposed by Tajfel and his colleagues to investigate the minimal conditions required for […] to occur between groups : this methodology consists of two phases.
In the first phase, participants are [… and … … … … …] (e.g., “Group A” and “Group B”), ostensibly on the basis of [trivial criteria] (e.g., [… for …] or [the … of a …]).
In the second phase, participants take part in an ostensibly [… … … …]. During this task, participants distribute a [… …] (e.g. [… or …]) between other participants who are only identified by [… …] and [… …] (e.g. “participant number 34 of Group A”).
Participants are told that, after the task is finished, they will receive the total amount of the resource that has been [… to … by the … …].
Typically, minimal group experiments find that, although participants show a [… … of …] in their allocations, they also show a [… … to … … … or … to …-… … than to …-… …].
The ⭐️[Minimal group paradigm] is a methodology proposed by Tajfel and his colleagues to investigate the minimal conditions required for [discrimination] to occur between groups : this methodology consists of two phases.
In the first phase, participants are [randomly and anonymously divided into two groups] (e.g., “Group A” and “Group B”), ostensibly on the basis of [trivial criteria] (e.g., [preference for paintings] or [the toss of a coin]).
In the second phase, participants take part in an ostensibly [unrelated resource distribution task]. During this task, participants distribute a [valuable resource] (e.g. [money or points]) between other participants who are only identified by [code number] and [group membership] (e.g. “participant number 34 of Group A”).
Participants are told that, after the task is finished, they will receive the total amount of the resource that has been [allocated to them by the other participants].
Typically, minimal group experiments find that, although participants show a [significant degree of fairness] in their allocations, they also show a [significant tendency to allocate more money or points to in-group members than to out-group members].
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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OPTIMAL DISTINCTIVENESS THEORY (Brewer 1991)
This theory proposes that social identity involves a compromise between two opposing needs : the need for ⭐️[…] (to be [… …]) and the need for ⭐️[…] (to be different from others). People are motivated to identify with groups that provide an optimal balance between these two needs.
⭐️[… … …] puts forward two motivations for intergroup bias.
First, bias is motivated by the need to affirm the satisfaction derived from […] with an [… … …] (Leonardelli and Brewer 2001).
Second, given a certain degree of identification, intergroup bias is motivated by the need for [… …] (Brewer 1991).
This theory proposes that social identity involves a compromise between two opposing needs : the need for ⭐️[assimilation] (to be [like others]) and the need for ⭐️[differentiation] (to be different from others). People are motivated to identify with groups that provide an optimal balance between these two needs.
⭐️[Optimal distinctiveness theory] puts forward two motivations for intergroup bias.
First, bias is motivated by the need to affirm the satisfaction derived from [identification] with an [optimally distinct group] (Leonardelli and Brewer 2001).
Second, given a certain degree of identification, intergroup bias is motivated by the need for [intergroup differentiation] (Brewer 1991).
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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SUBJECTIVE UNCERTAINTY REDUCTION THEORY (Hogg 2000, Hogg and Abrams 1993)
This theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce subjective uncertainty. One way to reduce subjective uncertainty is to [… … … … that … … … … for …]. Early studies have shown how uncertainty translates into […] and [… … …]. Think about Sherif’s experiment and his ⭐️[… …] : when individuals felt uncertain about some task, they became increasingly likely to [… with the … and … of the …], presumably as a means to [… this …].
This theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce subjective uncertainty. One way to reduce subjective uncertainty is to [identify with social groups that provide clear normative prescriptions for behavior]. Early studies have shown how uncertainty translates into [conformity] and [connection to groups]. Think about Sherif’s experiment and his ⭐️[autokinetic effect] : when individuals felt uncertain about some task, they became increasingly likely to [comply with the norms and behaviors of the group], presumably as a means to [diminish this uncertainty].
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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TERROR MANAGEMENT THEORY (see Solomon et al. 1991)
This theory proposes that people have a need for […-…], and that this need is frustrated by their [… of the … of … … …]. According to terror management theory, people with high self-esteem feel that they are meeting the [… … by their … …], and therefore feel more confident in [… … … of …].
Hence, cultural worldviews and, more specifically, self-esteem provide [… … the … … by the … of …]. Terror management theory proposes that people evaluate in-group members positively because similar others are assumed to […, and therefore …, their … … …] ; but they evaluate out-group members negatively because dissimilar others are assumed to [… their …].
This theory proposes that people have a need for [self-preservation], and that this need is frustrated by their [awareness of the inevitability of their own death]. According to terror management theory, people with high self-esteem feel that they are meeting the [values espoused by their cultural worldview], and therefore feel more confident in [attaining some form of immortality].
Hence, cultural worldviews and, more specifically, self-esteem provide [buffers against the anxiety caused by the awareness of death]. Terror management theory proposes that people evaluate in-group members positively because similar others are assumed to [support, and therefore validate, their own cultural worldview] ; but they evaluate out-group members negatively because dissimilar others are assumed to [threaten their worldview].
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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SOCIAL DOMINANCE THEORY (Sidanius and Pratto 1999)
Social dominance theory proposes that society contains ideologies that either [… or … … …]. Individual differences in the extent to which these competing ideologies are accepted are represented by [… … … (SDO)]. Individuals with a high SDO have a strong desire to promote [… …] and for their ingroups to […] their out-groups.
Social dominance theory proposes that society contains ideologies that either [promote or attenuate intergroup hierarchies]. Individual differences in the extent to which these competing ideologies are accepted are represented by [social dominance orientation] (SDO). Individuals with a high SDO have a strong desire to promote [intergroup hierarchies] and for their ingroups to [dominate] their out-groups.
PREJUDICES, STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION
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SYSTEM JUSTIFICATION THEORY (Jost and Banaji, 1994 ; Jost and Burgess, 2000).
System justification theory proposes that people are motivated to [… and …] instances of inequality in order to [… and … the … of the … or … …]. Since high status group members regularly benefit from the [… …], they are expected to rarely be presented with examples that would [… the … of the …]. In contrast, it is expected that low status group members who do not benefit from the system, would be presented more regularly with [… to the … of the … and … …]. Thus, it is expected for system justification tendencies to increase in societies with more substantial [… …], and ⭐️[… … … …] will be more inclined than high status group members to provide [… … … to … and … the … … and … …].
System justification theory proposes that people are motivated to [rationalize and justify] instances of inequality in order to [preserve and defend the legitimacy of the system or status quo]. Since high status group members regularly benefit from the [prevailing system], they are expected to rarely be presented with examples that would [threaten the legitimacy of the system]. In contrast, it is expected that low status group members who do not benefit from the system, would be presented more regularly with [threats to the legitimacy of the system and status quo]. Thus, it is expected for system justification tendencies to increase in societies with more substantial [group inequalities], and ⭐️[low status group members] will be more inclined than high status group members to provide [more intense justifications to rationalize and uphold the prevailing systems and status quo].
