Body & Body Systems Continued Again Flashcards
a blank exists across every neuron’s plasma membrane
potential difference
cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane is blank
negative
extracellular fluid side is blank in a plasma membrane
positive
cytoplasm is negatively charged because of this
sodium potassium pump
sodium potassium pump brings two blank into cell for every three blank pumped out
K+, Na+
away from poles and toward neutral in terms of voltage
depolarization
depolarization makes the membrane potential more blank
positive
blank makes it extremely negative in terms of voltage
hyperpolarization
a change in membrane potential that moves down the membrane
action potentials
one change in voltage after another along the axon
action potentials
depolarization, hyperpolarization, resting are how the blank moves down the axon
action potential
action potentials are proliferated by blank channels
voltage-gated ion
two voltage gated ion channels
Na+ and K+
Na+ channels open blank
first
K+ channels open blank
second
Na+ causes and influx of Na+ ions causing blank
depolarization
K+ channel allows in K+ ions and causes blank
hyperpolarization
When depolarization occurs, the change in charge is detected by the blank Na+ channels
adjacent
Once the cytoplasm is blank enough, the next channel with blank
positive, open
the point where sodium is either allowed in or not of the axon
threshold
sodium comes in and causes blank
depolarization
potassium goes out and causes blank
hyperpolarization
Three phases of action potential
undershoot, resting potential, axon terminal
the signal moves down the axon until the axon blank
terminal
intercellular junctions between neurons
synapses
these cells transmit action potential
presynaptic cell
these cells receive the action potential
postsynaptic cells
chemical synapses have a blank
synaptic cleft
this is the space between two cells
synaptic cleft
end of presynaptic axon terminal contains blank
synaptic vesicles
these synaptic vesicles are packed with blank
neurotransmitters
action potential blanks to the other side of the cleft
diffuses
neurotransmitters activate blank channels on the postsynaptic cell
ligand gated ion
blank induce opening of the channel in ligand gated ion channels
neurotransmitters
blank cause changes in cell membranes permeability
neurotransmitters
how are neurotransmitters terminated after they are used?
broken down by enzymes
two ways to increase velocity of conduction
axon has a large diameter or axon is myelinated
axon having a large diameter is primarily found in blank
invertebrates
humans axons are blank which increases velocity of conduction
myelinated
spaces between myelin sheet
nodes of Ranvier
action potential is produced here
nodes of Ranvier
impulse jumps from node to node
saltatory conduction
prolonged exposure to a neurotransmitter may cause cells to lose the ability to respond to it. this is called
habituation
affects the brain’s pleasure pathways and inhibits the reuptake of neurotransmitter and can eventually result in habituation
cocaine
when using cocaine, the number of blank to reestablish homeostasis decreases in cells
receptors
cocaine use results in a blank neuron activity in normal conditions
decreased
the only major phylum without nerves
sponges
the simplest nervous system belongs to blank
cnidarians
neurons linked to each other in a blank
nerve net
a nerve net has no blank neurons
associative
a cnidarian is a big blank machine
reflex
free-living playhelminthes are the simplest animals with blank activity
associative
all other nervous systems are elaborations on the blank model
playhelminth
earthworms have a blank that connect to the periphery
cns
arthropods have blank centers in the fron and branching blank chords
coordination, nerve
cephalopods have several giant blank that connect to a blank brain
giant, large
a vertebrate brain is an enlargement of the blank portion of the nerve cord
anterior
three basic division of the simplest vertebrate brain
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
the dominant feature of the brain in vertebrattes
forebrain
the increase in brain size in blank reflects the great enlargement of the blank
mammals, cerebrum
cerebrum has right and left blank which are connected by the blank
cerebral hemispheres, corpus callosum
four lobes of hemispheres of brain
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
integrates visual, auditory, and somatosensory informatino
thalamus
integrates visceral activites, controls the pituitary gland and is part of the blank system
hypothalamus, limbic
system responsible for emotional responses
limbic system
a cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbone
spinal cord
spinal cord is enclosed and protected by the vertebral column and the
meninges
serves as the body’s information highway
spinal cord
spinal cord also functions in blank
reflexes
the knee jerk reflex is blank which means no interneuron
monosynaptic
no interneuron
monosynaptic
most reflexes in vertebrates involve a single blank
interneuron
the blank nervous system consists of nerves and ganglia
pns
are bundles of axons bound by connective tissue
nerves
are aggregates of neuron cell bodies
ganglia
blank motor neurons stimulate the skeletal muscles to contract
somatic
somatic nervous system involves only one blank neuron
motor
nervous system with subconscious control
autonomic
motor pathway has blank neurons in autonomic nervous system
two
the first neuron exits the cns and synapses at autonomic blank
ganglia
the second neuron exits the ganglion and regulates blank in motor pathway of ans
effectors
two division of autonomic nervous system
sympathetic, parasympathetic
fight or flight, reduce digestion, increase alertness, increase respiration
sympathetic
division of ans with slow heart rate/breathing, increase digestive functions and relaxed
parasympathetic division
two times of stimuli that sensory receptors sense
exteroceptors and interoceptors
three classes of receptors
mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, energy detecting receptors
receptors stimulated by mechanical forces like pressure
mechanoreceptors
receptors that detect chemicals or chemical changes
chemoreceptors
four steps in process of sensory info being percieved
stimulation, transduction, transmission, interpretation
receptor potential in sensory cell is created in this step
transduction
action potential in sensory neuron in this step
transmission
sensory cells respond to stimuli via blank channels
stimulus gated ion
depolarization of the receptor cell occurs which is referred to as blank in stimulus gated ion channels
receptor potential
only responds to a specific kind of stimulus
stimulus gated ion channels
these are mechanoreceptors that transmit impulses based on cell damage
nociceptors
pain is the interpretation of blank
nociceptors
free nerve endings are located throughout the blank
body
there are blank nerve endings where damage is most likely to occur
free
mechanoreceptors that are naked dendritic endings of sensory neurons and are sensitive to changes in temperature
thermoreceptors
thermoreceptors contain blank channels that are responsive to hot and cold
ion
blank receptors are located higher in the skin and are much more numerous than blank receptors
cold, warm
several types of mechanoreceptors detect blank
touch
how many components of sense of touch
six
mechanoreceptors that monitor muscle length and tension
proprioceptors
two things that provide information about the relative position or movement of animal’s body parts
muscle spindels, golgi tendon organs
mechanoreceptors that monitor blood pressure
baroreceptors
baroreceptors are a branched network of afferent neurons in the blank and blank
carotid sinus, aortic arch
these mechanoreceptors detect tension or stretch in wallls of blood vessels
baroreceptors
when blood pressure decreases, the frequency of impulse blanks in baroreceptros
decreases
specialized cells with cytoplasmic extensions are called blank in hair cells
stereocilia
when stereocilia bend they send a blank to a sensory neuron
action potential
stereocilia detect these three senses
water current, hearing, balance
lateral line system of a fish has blank cells in a gelatinous blank
hair, cupula
bending of stereocilia detects blank in fish
currents
the detection of vibrations
hearing
blank receptors provide better directional information than blank receptors
auditory, chemo
three chambers filled with fluid wrapped in a coil
cochlea
has a basilar membrane with hair cells in the cochlea
organ of corti
vibrations of the basilar membrane’s hair cells press the stereocilia against the blank
tectorial membrane
sends nerve impulses to the brain where they are interpreted as sound
cochlea
bats, shrews, whales, dolphins have the ability to perceive presence and distance of objects by sound
echolocation
the gravity receptors consist of two blank in the membranous blank in vertebrates
chambers, labyrinth
within the blank and blank are hair cells
utricle, saccule
utricle and saccule are embedded in a calcium rich blank
otolith membrane
head movement causes the otolithic membrane to move and blank to bend
stereocilia
these detect angular acceleration in any direction
semicircular canals
swollen chambers of semicircular canals
ampullae
hair cell stereocilia with a gelatinous blank protrude into blank
cupula, semicircular canals
blank moves fluid in semicircular canals
acceleration
these can bind to particular chemicals in extracellular fluid
chemoreceptors
membrane of sensory neuron becomes blank and produces action potentials
depolarized
senses that are from chemoreceptors, three
taste, smell, blood composition
five receptor types of taste
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
collections of chemosensitive cells associated with afferent neurons
taste buds
flies have taste chemoreceptors on their blank
feet
blank involves neurons located in the upper portion of the nasal passages
smell
humans have over blank smell receptors
50
humans can discern blank different smells
thousands
these are found in the aortic and carotid bodies and are senstive primarily to pH of plasma
peripheral chemoreceptors
these are found in the medulla oblongata of the brain and are sensitive to the pH of blank fluid
central chemoreceptors, cerebrospinal
vision begins with the capture of light energy by blank
photoreceptors
many invertebrates have photoreceptors in a blank like flatworms
eyespot
flatworms can perceive blank but cannot make a blank
direction of light, visual image
four phyla have evolved well developed image forming eyes and they are
annelids, mollusks, arthropods, chordates
vision is an example of blank evolution because vision is similar in structure but evolved independently
convergent
rods have blank which is a broad ranging pigment that detects values
rhodopsin
cones have blank
photopsins
the more blank you have the more color you see
cones
carnivores are blank
dichromats
humans are blank
trichromats
birds are blank and can see ultraviolet
tetrachromats
three layers of cells in retina from external to internal layer
photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells
photoreceptors stimulate blank cells which stimulate blank cells
bipolar, ganglion
action potentials from retina goes to the blank
thalamus
each blank of cerebrum receives input from both eyes
hemisphere
ability to perceive 3d images
binocular vision
prey animals have eyes on side of blank
head
predators have eyes on the side of blank
face
snakes can see blank
infrared
blank organs allow snakes to see infrared
pit
elasmobranchs (sharks rays, skates) have blank
electroreceptors
this can sense electrical currents generated by the muscle contractions of their prey
ampullae of lorenzini
these navigate along the magnetic field lines of the earth, eels, sharks, bees, birds
magnetoception
don’t know how blank works
magnetoception
there is blank in the periderm
cork
this contributes to lateral growth of trees
vascular cambium
a blank is established during embryo genesis
root shoot axis
pfr may increase plant height because far red light is
reflecting off other plants
pulvini cells do not respond to blank
auxin
two modified stems
aerial, tubers
have no jaws fish
cyclostomata
this triggers secretion of HCL from the gastric glands
gastrin
this is released into the blood to store acquired nutritents from food
glucagon
