Body & Body Systems Continued Flashcards
blank tissue does not grow back
brain
blank output is the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute
cardiac
blank increases during exertion because of an increase in both heart rate and stroke volume
cardiac output
the blood consists of blank which is the matrix
plasma
blank is the second biggest part of blood
red blood cells
blank is the third biggest part of blood
platelets
blank is the smallest part of blood
white blood cells
three functions of circulating blood
transportation, regulation and protection
plasma is blank percent water
92
five solutes in plasma
nutrients, wastes, hormones, ions, proteins
plasma is called blank when proteins are removed
serum
blank are also called red blood cells
erythrocytes
red blood cells of vertebrates contain blank
hemoglobin
a pigment that binds and transports oxygen
hemoglobin
these cells in blood are larger than erythrocytes and have nuclei and can migrate out of capillaries
leukocytes
cell fragments that pinch off from larger cells in the bone marrow
platelets
function in the formation of blood clots
platelets
all of the formed elements of blood develop from blank stem cells
pluripotent
blank is blood cell production
hematopoiesis
red blood cell production is called blank
erythropoiesis
maintaining blank balance involves taking and giving water to/from the environment and exchanging solutes which maintains blank
osmotic, homeostasis
the measure of a solution’s tendency to take in water by osmosis
osmotic pressure
the measure of a solution’s ability to change the volume of a cell by osmosis
tonicity
three types of tonicity
hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic
equal water exchange with surroundings
isotonic
water always moves from blank to blank
hypo to hyper
organisms that are in osmotic equilibrium with their environment
osmoconformers
most marine invertebrates and Chondrichthyes are blank
osmoconformers
maintain a constant blood osmolarity different than their environment
osmoregulators
most vertebrates are these and all terrestrial animals are these
osmoregulators
produced when amino acids and nucleic acids are broken down
nitrogenous wastes
in nitrogenous wastes, the blank group is removed which forms blank
amino, ammonia
blank are only safe in dilute concentrations, it must be eliminated
nitrogenous wastes
excessive accumulation of ammonia derivatives in joints causes blank in humans
gout
these animals eliminate ammonia by diffusion via gills
bony fishes and baby amphibians
Chondrichthyes, adult amphibians, and mammals convert ammonia into blank which dissolves into blank to get rid of nitrogenous wastes
urea, water
birds, reptiles, and insects convert ammonia into the water insoluble blank that uses blank but does not need blank
uric acid, carbon, water
a variety of mechanisms have evolved. one is a contractive blank that is used by protists.
vacuoles
these pump out water to ensure cell does not burst
vacuoles
nitrogenous wastes are excreted through the blank when there is a vacuole present
membrane
blank use specialized cells and tubules to get rid of nitrogenous wastes
invertebrates
blank are a network of tubes which branch into bulblike blank cells
protonephridia, flame
blank remove solutes and excess water from body in flatworms
flame cells
blank open to the outside of the body through a pore in flatworms
protonephridia
earthworms use blank to get rid of nitrogenous wastes
nephridia
there is how many nephridia on each segment
one
a series of convoluted tubules that remove excess water and solutes from blood and produce urine
nephridia
urine is excreted through a blank in earthworms
pore
how insects get rid of nitrogenous wastes
malpighian tubules
create an osmotic gradient that draws water into the tubules by osmosis in insects
malpighian tubules
blank and blank are secreted into tubules by active transport in insects
h20, K+
water and potassium is blank into the open circulatory system through the hindgut
reabsorbed
cartilaginous fish are blank to seawater
isotonic
shark blood has blank times the amount of urea as a mammal
100
the blank concentration in blood is equal to that of the sea water in sharks
solute
sharks actually blank the urea instead of excreted
reabsorbs
blank are hypotonic to seawater
saltwater bony fish
water leaves saltwater bony fish and does blank across its gills
osmosis
saltwater bony fish drink a lot of blank
seawater
saltwater bony fish have seawater blank that become dissolved in the blank
ions, blood
saltwater bony fish actively blank ions across the gill surface
eliminate
saltwater bony fishes have blank
kidneys
freshwater bony fish are blank to fresh water
hypertonic
the blank of freshwater bony fish produces large amounts of dilute urine
kidney
freshwater bony fish blank ions across blank
reabsorb, nephrons
blank reptiles absorb much of the salt and water in their blood in their kidney
terrestrial
terrestrial reptiles move the dilute blank into the blank
urine, cloaca
blank is reabsorbed in the cloaca of terrestrial reptiles
water
blank and blank are the only vertebrates that can produce urine that is hypertonic
mammals, birds
urine is produced from the blood in blank
nephrons
blood is carried into the blank of nephron
glomerulus
the glomerulus does what
filters out blood
filtrate enters the blank in the nephron
bowman’s capsule
unfiltered blood blanks in the nephron
drains out
filtrate moves through the blank in the nephron
renal tubules
when filtrate exits the collecting blank it is now blank
duct, urine
three step process of nephron function
filtration, reabsorption, secretion
blood plasma is filtered out of the glomerulus into the tubule system
filtration
selective movement of substances out of the filtrate back into the blood
reabsorption
active movement of substances from the blood into the filtrate
secretion
three things in urine
hydrogen, potassium, toxins
six things reabsorbed in nephron
h2o, na, cl, K, Ca, HCO3
kidneys regulate blank balance in the blood by reabsorption and secretion
electrolyte
blank eliminate toxins and metabolic wastes
kidneys
maintain relatively constant levels of blood, volume, pressure, and osmolarity
kidneys
blank hormone is secreted by the blank gland
antidiuretic, pituitary
antidiuretic hormone is stimulated by an increase in the blank of blood
osmolarity
antidiuretic hormone causes walls of blank tubule and collecting ducts to become more blank to water
distal, permeable
antidiuretic hormone blanks reabsorption of water
increases
this hormone is secreted by the adrenal cortex
aldosterone
the release of aldosterone is stimulated by low levels of blank in the blood
Na+
aldosterone causes the blank tubule to blank Na+
distal, reabsorb
marine reptiles and birds drink blank and excrete blank urine
seawater, isotonic
some marine reptiles and birds eliminate excess salt through blank glands through their nose
salt
Three levels of defenses of vertebrates
integumentary, nonspecific immune system, specific immune system
defense of vertebrates that includes skin and mucous membranes provide first line of defense
integumentary
defense of vertebrate that acts very rapidly after onset of infection
nonspecific immune system
vertebrate line of defense that recognizes germs and destroys them
specific immune system
largest body organ
skin
how many layers of skin
two
how many layers of epidermis
5 layers
how many cells thick is epidermis
10-30 cells
epidermis contains blank which makes skin tough and water resistant
keratin
oil and sweat glands give skin a PH of blank to blank
5-Mar
this breaks down bacterial cell walls in the epidermis
lysozyme
contains 2 layers of connective tissue and is 15-40 times thicker than epidermis
dermis
provides structural support for epidermis, and matrix for blood vessels, muscles and nerve endings
dermis
these three tracts are lined by mucous membranes
digestive, respiratory, urogenital
this tissue secretes mucus which traps blank
epithelial tissue, microbes
this consists of cellular and chemical devices that respond to any microbial infection and is a rapid response
nonspecific immunity
three types of blank are the most important nonspecific defense
leukocytes
means big eater and is a large/irregularly shaped and kills microbes by phagocytosis and is a leukocyte
macrophages
the most abundant type of circulating leukocytes and first appear at site of infection, also eat by phagocytosis
neutrophils
type of leukocyte that destroys pathogen-infected and cancer cells by programmed cell death called blank
natural killer lymphocytes, apoptosis
blank involves several body systems and is when injured cells dilate and increase permeability
inflammation
blank promotes phagocyte accumulation
inflammation
redness, warmth, swelling, and pain are all signs of blank
inflammation
inflammation is accompanied by an blank manifested by increased temp
acute phase response
this promotes activity of phagocytes, while impeding microbial growth
acute phase response
The scientific study of immunity began with who in this year
Edward Jenner, 1796
Jenner observed that milkmaids had blank rarely got blank
cowpox (mild), smallpox (severe)
Jenner blank individuals from cowpox vesicles to protect them from smallpox which started blank
vaccinated, vaccination
the four characteristics of the specific or blank immune responses are
specificity, diversity, memory, ability to distinguish self from non self
a molecule that provokes a specific immune response
antigens
proteins and blank are found on the surface of cells
glycoproteins
antigens have specific regions of detection known as blank
epitopes
blank direct an immune response against either the antigen or the cell that carries it
lymphocytes
when a lymphocyte binds to a specific antigen for the first time, it activates blank
clonal selection
two lymphocytes that detect and fight antigens are
B cells and t cells
lymphocyte that responds to antigens by secreting blank, or antibodies
B cells, immunoglobulins
B cells produce this immunity
humoral (long range)
lymphocytes that directly attack cells that carry specific antigens
t cells
T cells produce this immunity
cell mediated immunity (close range combat)
organs of the immune system consist of these two organs
primary lymphoid, secondary lymphoid
organs of the immune system where cells grow and mature
primary lymphoid
bone marrow and thymus are blank organs
primary lymphoid organs
in these organs, cells move there to expose themselves to antigens
secondary lymphoid organs
lymph nodes and spleen are examples of these organs
secondary lymphoid
the blank is the site of B cell maturation
bone marrow
each B cell has many blank molecules on its surface
lg
B cells recognize antigens blank
directly
any lymphocyte that binds to self-antigens undergo blank
apoptosis
the blank is the site of T cell maturation
thymus
each T cell has many blank on its surface
T cell receptors
just like B cells, any lymphocytes that bind to self antigens undergo blank
apoptosis
the location of secondary lymphoid organs promote the blank of antigens that enter any part of an individual’s body
filtering
mature b and T cells become activated in the blank
lymph nodes
the blank is the site of immune responses to antigens found mainly in the blood
spleen
include the tonsils and appendix and is a secondary lymphoid organs
MALT
nonspecific immune cell ingests virus or cancer cell and presents the antigen and is because of T cells
cell mediated immunity
T cells destroy the cells with blank antigens
foreign
type of immunity with B cells where activation results in clonal expansion into blank and blank cells
humoral immunity, plasma cells, memory cells
these are also called antibodies
immunoglobulins
consists of four chains forming a y shaped molecule
antibody
each chain of y shaped molecule has a blank
antigen binding site
each Ig can bind blank identical antigens
2
how many classes of immunoglobulins
five
the first encounter with a foreign antigen is called the
primary immune response
only few b or T cells recognize the antigen in this response
primary immune response
during this response there is a large clone of memory cells that can recognize the antigen
secondary immune response
this response is more effective
secondary immune response
the acceptance of self cells is known as blank
immune tolerance
these diseases are caused by the failure of immune tolerance
autoimmune diseases
autoimmune disease result in activation of autoreactive blank cells and the production of autoantibodies by blank cells
t, b
these diseases cause inflammation and organ damage
autoimmune diseases
a blank refers to a greatly heightened response to a foreign antigen
allergy
the most common type of allergen is known as immediate blank
hypersensitivity
blank cells are activated to secrete antibodies on the initial exposure to an allergen
b
blank cells release histamine and other inflammatory mediators
mast
producing histamines produce blank of allergy
symptoms
People may have blank antigens, blank antigens or neither with is called blank, or both called blank in blood
A, B, O, AB
antigens are fought and killed by blank
antibodies
some pathogens can alter their surface blank to avoid immune system detection
antigens
2 surface proteins of influenza virus
antigenic drift, antigenic shift
surface protein that point mutations to the genes that express antigen epitopes
antigenic drift
surface protein that sudden appearance of a new virus subtype where proteins are completely different due to antigenic drift
antigenic shift
this virus mounts a direct attack on T cells
hiv
hiv binds to cd4 proteins on t and is blank
endocytosed
an individual is considered to have blank when their T cell level has dropped significantly
aids
blank results in an increase in opportunistic infections and cancers
immunosuppression
all animals must be able to respond to blank stimuli
environmental
these detect stimuli like light, heat, touch
sensory receptors
photoreceptors, chemoreceptors are examples of blank receptors
sensory
blank respond to stimuli
motor
muscles and glands are blank
motor effectors
the blank system links sensory and motor
nervous
three types of neurons
motor, sensory, interneurons
carry impulses to CNS and are neurons
sensory
neurons that carry impulses from CNS to effectors
motor neurons
neurons that provide more complex reflexes and associateive functions
interneurons
the majority of neurons are blank
interneurons
learning and memory comes from these neurons
interneurons
these support the neurons
neuroglia
blank are multiple layers of cell membranes wrapped around axons
myelin sheath
myelinated axons are formed from blank matter
white
dendrites/cell bodies form from blank matter
gray
white matter and gray matter make up the blank
CNS
myelinated axons are bundled to form nerves in the blank
pns
myelinated axons are bundled to form blank
nerves
