Blood Flashcards
1
Q
What are the physiological functions of blood?
A
Transportation medium:
- Blood gases
- Nutrients
- Metabolites
- Information
- Heat
- Defense mechanism
- Haemostasis
- Homeostasis
2
Q
Give the total buffer capacity for a bicarbonate buffer
A
53%
3
Q
Give the total buffer capacity for non bicarbonate buffer
A
47%
4
Q
Haemostasis
A
Coagulation
Reactions after vessel injuries
5
Q
Effect of blood on homeostasis
A
Promotes:
- Isovolemia
- Isotonia
- Isoionia
- Isohydria
6
Q
What proportion of blood is water?
A
90%
7
Q
Composition of blood
A
- Plasma
- RBCs
- WBCs
- Thrombocytes
8
Q
Blood + Anticoagulation and Centrifugation →
A
Plasma (with fibrinogen) + Cellular elements
9
Q
Blood + long resting period
A
Serum (no fibrinogen)
Blood clot (fibrin-web)
10
Q
Hematocrit
A
- Diagnostic parameter
- Shows the proportion of corpuscular elements to the whole volume
11
Q
Average hematocrit value
A
40% or 0.4
12
Q
Average hematocrit value for dogs
A
0.46
13
Q
Average hematocrit value for hens
A
0.32
14
Q
What does the hematocrit show us?
A
The veloicty of sedimentation corpuscular elements
15
Q
Blood cell sedimentation rate for horses
A
60-70 mm/hour
16
Q
Blood cell sedimentation rate for dogs
A
5-10 mm/hour
17
Q
Blood cell sedimentation rate for swine
A
1-14 mm/hour
18
Q
Blood cell sedimentation rate for hens
A
1-4 mm/hour
19
Q
Blood cell sedimentation rate for ruminants
A
0-2 mm/hour
20
Q
Blood cell sedimentation rate for human
A
3-10 mm/hour
21
Q
pH of blood
A
7.35 - 7.45
pHvenous <pHarterial
22
Q
Give the relative viscosity of:
- Total blood
- Plasma
- Water
A
- Total blood: 4 (max 5.6)
- Plasma: 2
- Water: 1
23
Q
Give the density of plasma
A
1020 g/l
24
Q
Give the density of total blood
A
1052 g/l
25
Give the density of blood cells
1090 g/l
26
Give the freezing point of blood
-0.56°C
27
Give the total osmotic pressure of blood
700 kPa
28
Give the colloidosmotic/oncotic pressure of blood
2.7-4kPa
29
Give the osmolarity of blood
300 mmol/l
30
Give the blood volume of the body
80 ml/bwt
31
Give the plasma volume of the body
45 ml/bwkg
32
Give the blood cell volume of the body
35 ml/bwkg
33
Formula to calculate blood volume
V = Vrbc / 0.9 x Ht
V = Vp / (1-0.9 x Ht)
* Vp = Plasma volume*
* Vrbc = blood cell volume*
* Ht = Hematocrit value*
34
1, 4 and 7 are examples of...
Normocythaemia
35
2, 5 and 8 are examples of
Polycythaemia
36
3, 6 and 9 are examples of...
Olygocythaemia
37
Normocythaemic normovolaemia
Healthy blood volume
38
Polycythaemic normovolaemia
* Haemoconcentration
* Viscosity increases
* Increased load on heart
39
Olygocythaemic normovolaemia
* Haemodilution
* Blood gets diluted with concurrent normal volume
40
Normocythaemic hypovolaemia (Oligaemia)
* Blood cells and plasma loss together
* Blood loss
* Plasma replaced quickly
* Cells return slowly
41
Polycythaemic hypovolaemia
* Anhydraemia: Lack of water/thirst
* Haemoconcentration
42
Normocythaemic hypervolaemia
* Plethora (A large amount)
* Excess transfusion
* Permanent, exhausting physical work
43
Olygocythaemic hypervolaemia
* Hydraemia
* Intake of excess water
* Infusion (followed by haemodilution)
44
Factors affecting blood volume
* Body fat
* Body position
* Muscle work
* Climate
* Nutrition
* Age
* Pregnancy
* Changes in water supply
45
Give the size of blood cells in:
* Mammals
* Birds
* Mammals: 6x2 µm
* Birds: 12x7 µm
46
Mean number of RBCs in the body
5 x 1012/L
47
Mitochondria are not present in RBCs, true or false
True
48
Average lifetime of RBCs
Average: 120 days
Cattle, swine: 60 days
Birds: 30 days
49
Haemoglobin concentration of blood
* 120-180 g/l
* 1.5-2.5 mmol/l
50
Haemoglobin content in 1g of RBCs
0.35g
35% haemoglobin concentraion
51
MCHC
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration
Approx 5mmol/l
52
Calculate MCHC
Hb/Ht
## Footnote
* Hb = Hemaglobin*
* Ht = Hematocrit*
53
MCH
Value
Mean corpsucular hemoglobin
0.45 fmol/pc
54
Calculate MCH
Hb/RBC
55
MCV
Mean corpuscular volume
80-100 femtoliter/pc
56
Calculate MCV
Ht/RBC
57
Hemolysis
Leakage or disruption of the blood cells
Can be:
* Hypoosmosis
* Hyperosmosis
58
Hypoosmosis
1. Blood cells placed in hypotonic solution
2. Water flows into cells
3. Cells swell and disrupt
59
Hyperosmosis
1. Blood dropped into hypertonic solution
2. Water leaves the cells
3. Cells shrink
60
Osmotic resistance
RBCs adapt and are therefore resistant to the significant changes of osmotic circumstances
61
Give the minimal osmotic resistance of RBCs
70-120 mmol/l NaCl
## Footnote
*haemolysis just starts*
62
Give the maximum osmotic resistance of RBCs
50 - 90 mmol/l NaCl
## Footnote
*all the cells haemolyse*
63
Osmotic resistance of the RBC is attributed to...
* The characteristics of the RBC membrane
* Spectrin protein molecules
* Fixed in place by ankyrine
* Give a flexible feature 'molecular springs'
* On the internal side of the membrane
64
Which physical effects can cause membrane haemolysis?
* Freezing
* Dissolving
* Shaking
* Shocking
* Osmosis
65
Which chemical effects can cause membrane haemolysis?
* Acids
* Liposolvents (E.g Ether, Chloroform)
* Surface tension reducers (Bile salts)
66
Which toxins can cause membrane haemolysis?
* Bacterial toxins
* Snake toxins
* Plant toxins
67
Haemoglobin
* Pigment (protein)
* Colours the RBCs
* Transports blood gases
* Forms the blood's buffer capacity
68
Give the molecular weight of Haemoglobin
65,000 Da
## Footnote
* 4 sub units*
* 120-180 g/lblood = 1.5 - 2.5 mmol/l*
69
Haem/Hem
* Ferro-protoporphyrine
* Porphyrine base with 4 coordination sites
* Only the bivalent iron atom can bind to oxygen reversibly
* (Oxygenation)
70
Methaemoglobin
* Oxygenated derivative
* Binds to oxygen _irreversibly_
* Returned to the haemoglobin in the:
* _Methaemoglobin-reductase-NADPH-systen_
71
Fe2+ prefixes
* HEM
* Ferro-
* Hemo-
72
Fe3+ prefixes
* Hemin
* Ferri-
* Hemi-
73
Globin
* Determines characteristics of oxygen binding
* Allows allosteric stimulation
* Binds to oxygen stronger after accepting the former one
74
Describe the evolution of blood cell genetics
* Originally one genetic chain (until 500 million years ago)
* Became alpha and beta chains
* 120 million years ago, beta chain spit into gamma1 and gamma2
* Beta1, beta2 and the epsylong chains also appeared through mutation
75
Sickle-cell anaemia
* Single amino acid change
* The 6th position of the beta chain should contain alanine
* It contains glutamine instead
76
Give the known Asian vector of malaria
Iwi bird
77
The age effect on RBCs
* Hb-F has a smaller affinity to 2,3-DPG
* *(From cell metabolism, allows oxygen transport from mother to fetus)*
* When compared with Hb-A due to the amino acid sequence
78
Adult haemoglobin
Hb-**A** = 2 alpha chains + 2 beta chains
79
Foetal haemoglobin
Hb-F = 2 alpha chains + 2 gamma chains
80
Oxygen in RBCs
* Bind to Fe2+ *(reversible)*
* 1 haem binds to 1 O2
* 1.34mlO2/ Hb
* 160mlO2/l blood
* 16% Volume
81
Carbon dioxide in RBCs
* Carbamino-hemoglobin
* Responsible for 20% CO2 transport
* Hb-NH2 + CO2 → Hb-N-COOH
82
Peak absorbance wavelengths for:
* HbO2
* Hb
* HbO2: **_540_**nm, **_580_**nm
* Hb: **_555_**nm
83
Haemoglobin composition: Fe2+
Deoxi-Hb
84
Haemoglobin composition: Fe2+ O2
Oxygenated-Hb
85
Haemoglobin composition: Fe2+ CO
CO-Hb
86
Haemoglobin composition: Fe3+
Hemiglobin (Methaemoglobin)
87
Haemoglobin composition: Fe3+ Cl
Hemin chloride
88
Compare the affinity of carbon monoxide to oxygen
Carbon monoxide has 200 times greater affinity than oxygen
89
Haemoglobin can be irreversibly oxidised by...
OH and Cl radicals
90
Haemoglobin can reversibly bind to...
Oxygen
91
Methaemoglobin/Hemiglobin can be reversed by which reducing agent?
Intravenous methylene blue injection
92
Give the two most important buffer bases in the blood
* Hb-
* HCO3-
93
Which acid-base pair ensures buffer action in the blood?
HHb/Hb-
94
What percentage of buffer capacity is provided by haemoglobin?
35%
95
Which is a better proton acceptor?
* Deoxygenated Hb
* Oxygenated Hb
Deoxygenated
96
Give the stages of the degradation of haemoglobin
(Not *via* phagocytosis)
1. RBCs → sphaerocytes
2. Sphaerocytes → Spleen + liver
3. Spleen + Liver release _Haemoglobin_
* _Haptoglobin_ binds haemoglobin in _blood_
* _Haemopexin_ binds haemoglobin in _plasma_
97
Describe how phagocytes break down haemoglobin
Haemoglobin broken down into:
* Globin → Aminoacid *(recirculated)*
* HEM → Fe *(recirculated)***
* HEM → protoporfirin-IX → _Bilirubin_ *(then enters blood)*
98
Name given to bilirubin when bound to Albumin
Bilirubin-I
99
What percentage of bilirubin-I is conjugated with Glucuronic acid?
80%
100
What percentage of bilirubin-I is conjugated with sulphate
20%
101
When bilirubin conjugates, it becomes...
Bilirubin-II
102
Where is Bilirubin-II deconjugated and how?
* In the gut
* Deconjugated by bacteria
103
Function of gut bacteria:
* Bilirubin-II →
* Bilirubin-I →
* Stercobilnogen
* Urobilinogen (UBG)
104
Give the fate of Stercobilnogen
* Oxidised
* Stercobilin formed
* This passes into the faeces *(stercobilin makes it brown)*
105
Give the fate of urobilinogen
* Absorbed by the gut
* Portal circulation → Liver *(14%)*
* *(Converted back to bilirubin)*
* Absorbed by *vv. hemorriodhales (1%)*
* Systemic circulation → Renal excretion *(Urine)*
106
Bilirubin-II
107
Bile
## Footnote
*Containing bilirubin-II*
108
Bilirubin-I
## Footnote
*after degredation by bacteria*
109
Stercobilinogen
110
Stercobilin
111
Urobilinogen (UBG)
112
Urobilinogen (UBG)
113
In embryonic stages, the red marrow recieves its blood-forming function by...
The embryionic liver
## Footnote
*(blood-forming function also given to the spleen in mice)*
114
Blood cell types are derived from
Progenitor cells *(after a maturation stage)*
115
During embryonic stages, which primordial cell type doesn't roam to the bone marrow?
T-progenitor cell
## Footnote
*(settles in the thymus, produces T-lymphocyte)*
116
Give the stages of blood cell development
1. Omnipotent primordial cell
2. Committed progenitor cell
3. Burst forming cell, erythroid
4. CFC-E colony
5. Normoblasts
6. Reticulocyte
7. Erythrocyte
117
What can a _reticulocyte number_ \>0.5% be a clinical indicator of?
Forced blood synthesis
118
Describe nucleus expulsion during blood cell development
1. MHC structures roam to the pole
2. Nucleus and MHC structures are exocytosed
3. Blood type-specific antigens remain on the RBC surface
4. Reticulocyte forms inside *(not fully mature RBC yet)*
Hb-mRNA is left in the cell, haemoglobin synthesis continues in endoplasmic reticulum
119
Give the factors affecting RBC synthesis
* Oxygen supply
* Hypoxia
* High altitude
* Blood loss
* Kidney status
* REF (renal erythropoietic factor)
* Age
120
Describe the spleen colony test
1. X-rays halt hematopoesis in _animal 1_
2. Bone marrow cells implanted from _animal 2_ to _animal 1_
3. 2 weeks lapse, implanted RBCs appear in _animal 1_
4. Spleen becomes enlarged, signal peptides increase in blood
121
**Erythropoetin**
* Size *(in mouse)*
* Producing cell
* Target Cell
* Size: 51,000 Da
* Producing cell: Kidney cells
* Target cell: CFU
## Footnote
*(RBCs)*
122
**Interleukin-3 (IL-3)**
* Size *(in mouse)*
* Producing cell
* Target Cell
* Size*:* 25,000 Da
* Producing cell: T-lymphocyte, epidermis
* Target Cell: CFU, progenitor and mature cells
123
**Granulocyte/Macrophage SF (GM-SF)**
* Size *(in mouse)*
* Producing cell
* Target Cell
* Size: 23,000
* Producing cell: T-lymphocyte, endothel, fibroblast
* Target cell: GM progenitor cells
124
**Granulocyte CSF (G-CSF)**
* Size *(in mouse)*
* Producing cell
* Target Cell
* Size: 25,000 Da
* Producing cell: Macrophage, fibroblast
* Target cell: GM progenitor and neutrophil
125
**Macrophage CSF (M-CSF)**
* Size *(in mouse)*
* Producing cell
* Target Cell
* Size: 70,000 Da
* Producing cell: Fibroblast, macrophage, endothel
* Target cell: GM progenitor and Macrophage
126
**Steel factor**
* Size *(in mouse)*
* Producing cell
* Target Cell
* Size: 40-50,000 Da
* Producing cell: Stroma of many organs
* Target cell: CFU
## Footnote
*(RBCs)*
127
White blood cells
* Develop in bone marrow, except lymphocytes
* Mammals: 5-15 x 109/Lblood
* Birds: 20-30 x 109/Lblood
* Dependent on: Age, sex, time of day
128
The pathological increase in the number of the white blood cells
Leukocytosis
129
Causes of leukocytosis
* Bacterial infection
* Viral infection
* Parasitic infection
* Inflammatory processes
130
Decrease of white blood cells
Leukopenia
131
Leukopenia can be caused by
* Radiation
* Mushroom toxins
* Medications
132
Neutrophyl, eosinophyl and basophyl are kinds of...
Granulocyte
133
Lymphocyte and monocyte are types of...
Agranulocyte
134
Neutrophil is ...% neutrophylic
60%
135
Lymphocyte is ...% lymphocytic
60%
136
Neutrophylic WBCs are found in...
Horses, carnivores, humans
137
Lymphocytic WBCs are found in...
Ruminants, swine, birds
138
Neutrophil granulocyte
* 10-14µm
* Segmented nucleus
* Lysosomes present
* Previous meeting of pathogens not necessary for elimination
139
Lifetime of neutrophil granulocytes
Circulation: 6-7 hours
Tissue: 2-3 days
140
Where are Neutrophil granulocytes produced?
What is the mobilisation of these called?
* Bone marrow
* Spleen
Mobilised during Leukocytosis
141
What are the % compositions of granules in the Neutrophil granulocyte
* 80% neutrophil
* 20% azurophil
142
List the enzymes of granules in a Neutrophil granulocyte
* Lysosyme
* Nuclease
* Protease
* Myeloperoxidase
* Superoxid dismutase
* Acidic/alkalic phosphatase
143
Describe the adhesion of white blood cells
WBCs adhere to the wall of capillaries
144
Describe the final developmental stages of the neutrophil granulocytes
1. Young cells - Stick-shaped nucleus
2. Becomes more segmented
3. Stick shape increases with infection rate
4. Granulocytopenia in decreased development
145
What are the developmental stages of neutrophil granulocytes
* Young forms
* Stick shape
* Bean form
* Matured neutrophil (3-5 segmented nucleus)
* Over matured neutrophil (5-10 segmented nucleus)
146
What is the 'shift to the left' in blood count?
* Forced hematopoiesis
* Presence of fresh (acute) infection
147
What is the 'shift to the right' in blood count?
* Presence of aged neutrophil granulocytes
* Incomplete hematopoiesis
148
Neutrophil granulocyte migration is based on
Actin bundles:
* Contractile
* Gel-forming
* Tightly united
149
Describe Diapedesis of Neutrophil granulocyte
1. Granulocyte _phyllopodium_ adheres between capillary enothelial cells
2. Granulocyte moves between the endothelial cells
3. Cell moves into the _interstitial space_
150
A complex consisting of three small and three bigger peptides
Clathrin
151
Ligand
152
Lysosome
153
Surface receptor
154
Nucleus
155
Actin cortex
156
LDL receptors 'recruited' by chlaritin
157
Chlaritin complex
158
Individual LDL receptor
159
Describe the diagram
* Actin directed border forming
* Ligand binding
* Actin dependent forming of pseudopodia
160
Describe the figure
* Internalisation
* Assisted with actin and fusogenic proteins
* Actin-binding
* Synthesis of fusogenic proteins
161
Describe the figure
Phagosome synthesis
162
Describe the figure
Phago-lysosome synthesis
163
Describe the figure
1. Residual body synthesis
2. Oxidative 'burst'
3. Digestion
164
Give the stages of the respiratory burst
1. First enzymatic step: NADPH-oxidase
2. Second enzymatic step: SOD
3. Third enzymatic step: MPO
165
Give the reaction of the first enzymatic step of phagocytosis
* NADPH-oxidase
* NADPH + 2O2 = 2O• + NADP + H+
* Active oxygen radical
166
Give the reaction of the second enzymatic step of phagocytosis
* SOD
* Superoxide dismutase
* 2O• + H2O → 2H2O2
167
Give the reaction of the third enzymatic step of phagocytosis
* MPO
* Myeloperoxidase
* H2O2 + Cl- → ClO- + H2O
* The most aggressive
168
Phagocyting ability increases .... times higher in the presence of a foreign body
100 times
169
Opsonisation
Where natural substances in the plasma *e.g C3b factor* can bind foreign antigen bodies to the receptor of a granulocyte.
170
Immune adherence
Similar to opsonisation only with the presence of an antibody/immunoglobulin
171
Basophil granulocyte
* Rarest WBC type
* Mast cells found _in tissues_
* Limited movement
* _Loosen tissues in the presence of antigens_
* Allows other defence elements to move to the place of infection
* Act as a stimulent of antigen elimination
172
Name the enzymes present in Basophil granulocytes
* Hyaluronidase (specific)
* Protease
* Myeloperoxidase
173
Degranulation
* Stimulated in different ways
* The release of granules (and therefore enzymes)
* The enzymes loosen the environment
* Extreme degranulation: pathological damage in the animal's own tissues - allergy
174
Give the specific degranulation pathway
1. Antibodies are forming, slower reaction
2. Antigen + antibody/complement stimulates degranulation
3. Normal response: Tissues loosen, immune cells access tissues
175
Give the non-specific degranulation pathway
1. Complememnts are always present, quick reaction
2. Antigen + antibody/complement stimulates degranulation
3. Pathological response: _Anaphylaxis_
176
What is a cytophilic antibody?
* An antibody that attaches to the basophil granulocyte
* The granulocyte has already prepared binding for antigens due to the antibody acting as a compliment
177
Which contents of the basophil granulocyte granules cause the tissues to loosen
* Histamine
* Heparin
* Hyaluronidase
178
What causes anaphylaxis?
* Degranulation
* Heparin release
* Accelerates antibodies entering the interstitium
* Accelerates Slow-reacting factor of anaphylaxis
* Causes long lasting inflammation
179
What does heparin help to prevent?
Coagulation
180
Eosinophil granulocyte
* Contains 'granules' in the form of _lysosomes_
* Lifetime: 3-5 days
* Has an _antiallergic effect_
* Proportion increases during allergic processes
* Pinocytosis only
* Cellular elimination in parasites
181
Give the enzymes contained in the Eosinophil granulocyte
* Histaminase
* Aril-sulphatase
* Myeloperoxidase
* Acidic and alcalic phosphatase
* Nuclease
182
During _Chemotaxis,_ WBCs migrate towards which specific signals?
* Products of tissue breakdown
* Histamine
* Complement factors
* Chemotaxines produced by WBCs
183
Describe the antiallergic effect of Eosinophil granulocytes
1. Basophil/Mast cell releases histamine and SRS-A
2. Histamine and SRS-A enter eosinophil *via* pinocytosis
3. Histaminase breaks down histamine
4. Aryl-sulphatase breaks down SRS-A
184
SRS-A
Slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis
185
Mononuclear phagocytes
* Contain Azurophyl granules (lysosomes)
* Produces intracellular and extracellular enzymes
* MPS: Mononuclear phagocyte system
* MS: Macrophage system *- antigen presentation, secretion*
* RES: Reticulo endothelial system
* RHS: Reticulo hisiocytic system
* Lifetime: 2-3 months in tissue
186
Polynuclear giant cells
Polynuclear phagocytes with dividing capacity
Increased phagocytosis
187
Describe the migration and chemotaxis of mononuclear phagocytes
Similar to neutrophil granulocytes
Circulating fraction is really small
Extravasal supply: tissue macrophages
188
Give the intracellular enzymes of mononuclear phagocytes
* Proteases
* Myeloperoxidae
* Superoxid dismustase
* Acidic and alcalic phosphatase
189
Give the extracellular enzymes of mononuclear phagocytes
* Collagenase
* Elastase
* Angiotensine convertase
190
Give the macrophage cell of connective tissue
Histiocyte
191
Give the macrophage cell of liver
Kuppfer cells
192
Give the macrophage cell of the lung
Alveolar macrophage
193
Give the macrophage cell of lymphnodes
Fix and migrating macrophage
194
Give the macrophage cell of the spleen
Fix and migrating macrophage
195
Give the macrophage cell of bone marrow
Fix macrophage
196
Give the macrophage cell of pleura
Pleural macrophages
197
Give the macrophage cell of the peritoneum
Peritoneal macrophages
198
Give the macrophage cell of bone tissue
Osteoclasts
199
Give the macrophage cell of the nervous system
Microglia
200
Phagocytes not only demolish foreign bodies but...
The organism's own perished and aged cells
201
Describe antigen presentation in a specialised APC *(antigen presenting cell)*
1. Macrophage eliminates pathogen
2. Digested pieces of antigen from the pathogen are kept
3. Antigen expressed on macrophage surface protein
1. MHC-complex II (Main histocompatibility complex)
4. T-cell receptor recognises the antigen fragment
5. Immune system initiated
6. Antibody production
202
Describe antigen presentation in an infected somatic cell
1. Foreign material presented on cell surface
2. Antigen presented on the MHC-I protein
3. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte recognises the MHC-I complex
4. The infected cell is destroyed
203
Secretion of MPS (mononuclear phagocyte system) cells
Tissues are loosened by:
* Collagenase
* Elastase
* Angiotensine convertase
Immune response is stimulated by:
* Interleukin-1
* Interferon
* Prostaglandins
204
What is the effect of interleukin-1 on _B-lymphocytes_
Antibody synthesis
205
What is the effect of interleukin-1 on _T-lymphocytes_
Interleukin-2 synthesis
206
What is the effect of interleukin-1 on _the hypothalamus_
Production of fever
207
What is the effect of interleukin-1 on _bone marrow_
Neutrophil granulocyte production
208
What is the effect of interleukin-1 on _fibroblasts_
Collagen synthesis
209
What is the effect of interleukin-1 on _the liver_
Synthesis of acute phase proteins
210
Lymphocytes
* Agranulocyte
* Small, medium and big
* Small/middle sized: Found in circulating blood
* Large sized: Antigen specific lymphocyte subpopulations
* B-lymphocytes (small)
* T-lymphocytes (medium)
* Lifetime: Hour to years
* Antibody production
* No phagocytosis
211
T-lymphocytes
* Prouduced in thymus
* Responsible for cellular immunity
212
B-lymphocytes
* Site of production
* Function
* Bursa fabricii (bone marrow, embryonic liver and spleen)
* Humoral immunity
213
Where are lymphocytes found?
In all tissues except for:
* cornea
* heart valve
214
The decrease in lymphocytes in the blood
Lymphopaenia
215
The increase in lymphocytes in the blood
Lymphocytosis
216
Function of B-lymphocytes
Produces immunoglobulins
217
Function of T-lymphocytes
* Cellular immune response
* Stimulation of humoral immune response
218
Function of '0' cells (NK cells)
Kills cells infected by tumour or virus
219
WBC development
* Pre-colony-forming-cells (*multipotent)* can reproduce in any direction (RBC/WBC producing)
* Direction committed and proliferable progenitor cells develop
* Maturation into final blood cell type
220
During embryonic life, which cell type doesn't migrate to the bone marrow?
T-progenitor cell
221
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
* In birds, platelets can act as phagocytes
* 2-8x1011 pcs/L
* Lifetime: 5-10 days
* No nucleus
* Smallest blood cell
* Origin: Polycaryocyte giant cells *(in red bone marrow)*
222
Which types of granules are found in thrombocytes?
* Alpha-granules
* Store coagulation factors
* Delta-granules
* Store serotonin from the plasma
223
What prompts the release of granules from platelets?
Thrombocyte activating factors
224
Describe the morphology of the platelet
* Plasma membrane:
* wide glycocalix
* Cell adhesion molecules (CAM)
* Internal tubular system
* Peroxidase
* Prostaglandins
* Lysosomes: Acidic hydrolases
* Peroxisomes: Catalase
225
Function of the platelet actin cortex
* Shrinks clots
* Helps alpha granules vacate
226
Describe the function of the microtubular cortex
* During the activation of the system
* Cytoplasmic processes form on the platelet surface
* Increases retractions
* Increases efflux of coagulation factors
227
Describe blood groups
* Antigens that appear on the surface of blood cells
* Discovered by _Karl Landsteiner_
* 15 different types in humans
* Antibodies produced postnatally against non-posessed RBC antigens
* Non-posessed RBCs are agglutinated
228
How are blood groups used in veterinary medicine
* Parentage testing
* Prediction of certain production trait selection
* Prevention of certain illnesses
229
Why are blood transfusions in animals lest risky than in humans?
* There are only a few antibodies agains RBC antigens
* The antigens can be found in RBCs _and plasma too_
* __During transfusion: antibody is neutralised in plasma already
* RBC-dissolving capacity therefore diminishes
230
Hemagglutinogens
* RBC surface
* Production of blood-agglutinating-antibody
* Agglutinate RBCs with corresponding antigens
* Blood type systems:
* System X (2 antigens)
* System Z (3 antigens)
231
Antigens found on the surface of RBCs are varieties of...
* Glycoproteids
* Glycolipids
232
Artificial hemagglutinins
* Antibodies form after immunisation
* Immunisation can be natural or artificial
233
Heterohemagglutinins
Agglutinate RBCs of other species
234
Isohemagglutinins
Agglutinate RBCs of the same species
235
Prevelance of Hemagglutinins
* Early immunisation *(postnatally)*
* Not present in newborns
* Concentration of antibodies is constantly growing
* Antibodies may disappear in the elderly
236
Give the two ways the RBC surface and plasma antibodies react
* Agglutination (More common in humans)
* Hemolysis (More common in animals)
Forms of _incompatibility_
237
Biochemical polymorphism
* Structurally different to blood group antigens
* Complete the same function
* *E.g Cattle transferrin polymorphism*
238
Describe cattle transferrin polymorphism
* 6 serums seperated on agarose gel
* belong to cows of different genotypes
* Transferrin shows a different pattern in the individuals *(after seperation)*
* They're allotted into types A-E
* Genetic differences observed between proteins
* These differences are linked to production traits
* Used in animal husbandry
239
H-antigen forms the basic structure of which blood system?
* AB0
* Common in all humans
* Therefore no antibodies are formed against it
240
If there is no AB0 blood group, it is refered to as...
Bombay-group
241
Blood groups A, B, AB and O are formed by...
* Further blood-type systems as wells as AB0
* If there are no additional groups synthesised
* → O group is default
242
What forms the A blood group antigen
N-acetyl-galactose-amine transferase enzyme
243
How is blood group O generated?
* 0-gene
* Supresses production of:
* N-acetyl-galactose amine transferase
* N-acetyl-galactosyl transferase
* No A or B blood group is formed
244
What forms the B blood group antigen?
N-acetyl-galactosyl transferase
245
IgM type antibodies
* Varieties of Hemagglutinine
* Prevent AB0 antigens entering the blood stream after birth
* if certain antigens not already present on RBCs
* Incompatability:
* Agglutination of RBCs by the serum
* Hemolysis
246
AB0 blood type reactions
* Determining of an unknown blood group
* *via* agglutination
* RBCs react with a serum containing specific antibodies
* E.g Anti-A, Anti-B
* Incompatibility observed, determining RBCs antigen type
247
Rh blood group - 1st pregancy
* _Rh negative mothers_ can be immunised by her _foetus' Rh positive_ RBCs
* The formed antibody isn't IgM-type, but _IgG-type_
* Crosses easier accross the placenta
* *via* micro-injuries during delivery
248
Rh blood group - 2nd pregnancy
* Small amount of RBCs enter mother's immune system
* Stimulating anti-Rh antibodies
* These dissolve foetal RBCs
* Leads to _erythroblastosis foetalis_
* Jaundice
* Death of foetus
249
Rh-incompatibility
* Rh negative recipent gets RBCs from Rh positive donor
* Recipient is immunised
* IgG antibodies dissolve recipients RBCs
* Second inappropriate blood transfusion can cause significant damage
250
Highest blood type in _europid_ race
0 (45% prevelance)
251
Highest blood type in _negrid_ race
0 (51% prevelance)
252
Highest blood type in _mongoloid_ race
A (38% prevelance)
253
How do animal blood groups differ to humans?
In animals:
* _No naturally formed antibodies_ against RBC-antigens of other individuals
* Blood type _antigens appear in the plasma too_
* Artificial antibody has _hemolysing_ and not agglutinating character
254
Monovalent antibody
Specific against only a single antigen
255
RFLP
Restriction fragment length polymorphism
## Footnote
*identifies individual DNA fingerprints*
256
Describe the production of an antibody which only reacts with the C-blood type antigen
## Footnote
*(With no specific antigen against the single C-group)*
1. Immunise _animal2_ with _animal1's_ washed RBCs (A,B,C antigens)
2. _Animal2_: only anti-B and anti-C is produced
3. Washing with B RBC-s, Anti-B is removed
4. Monovalent Anti-C serum remains
257
Number of blood group systems and antigen group factors in cattle
* 13 Blood group systems
* Approx. 100 group factors
258
Number of blood group systems and antigen group factors in sheep
* 8 blood group systems
* Approx 80 group factors
259
Number of blood group systems and antigen group factors in equine
* 8 blood group systems
* Approx 20 group factors
260
Number of blood group systems and antigen group factors in swine
* 15 blood group systems
* Approx 50 group factors
261
Number of blood group systems and antigen group factors in Dogs
* 12 blood group systems
* 13 group factors
262
Number of blood group systems and antigen group factors in cats
* 1 blood group system
* 2 group factors
263
Similarities of antigens in two of the the blood type systems
264
Chimeras
Individuals *(once dizygotes)* that during the foetal phase:
* The hemopoietic progenitor cell migrated from one fetus to another
* RBCs produced with the antigen structure similar to the original individual
This results in the same RBC and WBC antigen structure
265
How are chimeras identified?
Where one twin is positive and the other is negative
266
Freemartinism
* Sterile female who was twins with a male
* Testosterone of the male twin inhibits the formation of the fertile female
* 10% chance of the female being fertile in the situation of being a twin to a male
* Can be selected by blood type examination
* Detection of XY type chromosomes
* Economically viable during animal husbandry
267
Give an example of blood group production traits in cattle
* B-system blood type
* Production of milk lipids
268
Give an example of blood group production traits in swine
* H blood type, PHI gene
* Meat quality and stress sensitivity
269
Give an example of blood group production traits in sheep
* 0 blood type, L antigen
* Serum phosphatase level and low RBC potassium level
270
Meat from a stress sensitive swine produces...
Large amounts of exsudate after cutting
## Footnote
*lower market and nutritional value*
271
Blood transfusion
* Substitution of lost RBCs
* Assures gas transport
272
Blood transfusion in large animals
Large animals:
* low antibodies - no consideration needed theoretically
* Small proportion transferred initially
* If no incompatibility, transfusion commences
273
Blood transfusion in small animals
* Three drops of:
* Donor blood cells
* Recipient's plasma
* Physiological NaCl solution
* Check for hemolysis or agglutination
* Transfusion can be completed if none present
274
Blood transfusion in cats
* In life-saving situations:
* Blood of a donor dog can be transfused
* Not used anymore
* Blood typing kits now available
275
When can cat blood be donated to another cat?
After completing cross reaction tests
276
When can dog blood be donated to another dog?
After completing cross reaction tests
277
When can dog blood be donated to a cat?
In case of emergency without testing
278
Blood cell survival after transfusion of totally compatible donor and recipient
Normal lifetime (120 days)
## Footnote
*(Figure: A)*
279
Fate of blood cells after a partly compatible blood transfusion
* Significant hemolysis
* Enough supply for 5-10 days of normal gas transport
## Footnote
*(Figure: B)*
280
Blood cell survival after transfusion of totally incompatible donor and recipient
* Damage is caused
* Each RBC hemolyses immediately
## Footnote
*(Figure: C)*
281
Hemolytic illnesses of the newborn Horse
* Rh-like antigens
* Problem formed only postnatally
* Epitheliochorial placenta *(barely in endometrium)*
* Immunoglobulins absorbed from colostrum within 36 hours
* Symptoms:
* Hemolysis
* Neonatal jaundice
* Solution:
* Nursing the newborn
282
Hemolytic illnesses of the newborn swine
* Rh-like antigens
* Postnatal problem
* Swine antigen might cause incompatibility
* Epitheliochorial placenta *(barely in endometrium)*
* Immunoglobulins absorbed from the colostrum
* Symptoms:
* Hemolysis
* Neonatal jaundice
* Solution:
* Nursing the newborn
283
Hemostasis
* Blood clotting
* Defense reaction preventing loss of blood
* Vascular reaction
* Aggregation of platelets
* RBCs containing red thrombus forms
* Held in place by fibrin fibres
284
How is pathological clot formation prevented in the body?
A balance of:
* Hemostasis
* Self-inhibiting mechanism
285
The lack of blood coagulation
Hemophylia
286
Physiological micro-injuries
* Number is more significant
* Occurs constantly in all tissues
* Hemostasis is important in the ability to immediately repair these bleeds
287
Hemostasis balance system
If something causes bleeding or coagulation and it prevails for a longer period, it has pathologic consequences
288
Imbalance of the hemostasis system
* Decreased healing
* hemophilia, bleeding sickness
* Increased clot forming mechanisms +
* Pathologically decreased clot removal
* Thrombosis, pathological clot forming
289
Summary of the hemostasis reaction
1. Injury
2. Vascular reaction
3. Thrombocyte reaction
4. Coagulation cascade mechanism
5. Fibrinogen-fibrin transformation
6. Red/white thrombus formation
7. Blood loss stops
8. Decreased vascular reaction
9. Cascade inactivates
10. Fibrinolysis
11. Thrombolysis
12. Vessel wall repair
13. Complete healing
290
Vascular reaction
* Contraction after injury
* Depolarisation of smooth muscle cells
* Tissue vasoconstrictor factors
* Causes platelet formation
* Drop in perfusion
* Platelet aggreagtion
291
How are platelets attracted to injured endothelial cells
Binding to negative charges of injured endothelial areas
(Primary aggregation)
292
How does von Willebrand factor assist the thrombocyte reaction?
* Connects the injured surface with the thrombocytes
* Aggregation increases
293
Summarise the thrombocyte reaction
* Intima injury
* Primary activation
* Platelet binds to exposed _collagen_
* Von willebrand factor increases primary activation
* Secondary activation starts
* Thrombocytes bind together
* _Secrete coagulation factors_
* Endothelial _PGI2_ and _NO_ production stops
* Thrombocyte secretion
* Thrombin forming activates
* Thrombocyte releases:
* _Serotonin, ADP, PF-3, TXA_
* White thrombus
294
Summarise the central 'cascade'
1. External/internal injury
2. Xth coagulation factor → Xa factor
3. Prothrombin → Thrombin
4. Fibrinogen → IA loose fibrin net
5. Fibrine net stabilises
295
Roles of thrombin
* Enzyme
* Clot coagulation
* Clot elimination
* Self activating
* Coagulation-anticoagulation mechanisms
296
Extrinsic way of coagulation
* External tissue injuries
* Inactive factor VII → Activated when plasma enters tissues
* Factor VIIa → Activates the factor X in the central 'cascade'
297
Intrinsic way of coagulation
* Plasma factor XII connects to the surface
* This binds kininogen
* Activating the enzyme kallikrein
* Transforms factor VII to active XIIa
* XIIa = XI → XIa → activator complex
298
Stopping blood coagulation: anticoagulation
* Anticoagulation
* Endothelial cells bind thrombin
* Thrombin activates protein-C
* Protein-C prevents activation of enzymes needed for intrinsic and extrinsic activation
299
Stopping blood coagulation: Fibrinolysis
* Thrombin stimulates plasminogen activation
* The produced plasmin is an enzyme which dissolves the fibrin net
300
Stopping blood coagulation: thrombolysis
* Phagocytosis decreases the size of the thrombus
* Increasing perfusion helps demolish the thrombus
301
Coagulation factor: I fibrinogen
_Elementary substance of the stable fibrin net_
302
Coagulation factor: II Prothrombin
_Central enzyme: Clot forming and elimination_
303
Coagulation factor: III Tissue factor
Initiator of the extrinsic way
304
Coagulation factor: IV calcium ion
Fixes and activates the members of the cascade
305
Coagulation factor: V proaccelerin
_A member of the central activator complex_
306
Coagulation factor: VI
Not in use anymore
307
Coagulation factor: VII proconvertin
Initiator of the extrinsic way
308
Coagulation factor: VIII Antihaemophilic factor A
Member of the intrinsic activator complex
309
Coagulation factor: IX Christmas factor
Member of the intrinsic way
310
Coagulation factor: X Stuart-prower factor
Integrator of the intrinsic and extrinsic ways
311
Coagulation factor: XI plasma thromboplastin antecedent
Secondary initiator of the intrinsic way
312
Coagulation factor: XII Hageman factor - contact factor
Primary activator of the intrinsic way
313
Coagulation factor: XIII Lóránd-Laki, Fibrin stabilising factor function
Forms a fibrin-polymer from monomers
314
Coagulation factor: Kininogen
Activates factor VII and kallikrein
315
Coagulation factor: Kallikrein
Activates factor XII
316
The role of vitamin K
* Calcium-binding _gama-carboxyl-glutamic acid_ on the end of factors II, VII, IX, X and tissue factor _GIa-proteins_
* Coenzyme of the carboxylation of the glutamic acid in the liver is _reduced vitamin K_
317
Practical significance of vitamin K
* Natural intoxications
* _Dicumarol_
* Antagonises warfarin
* Inhibits coagulation
* Prevents thrombus formation
* During surgical interventions
* Cardiac valve etc.
