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Things I Should Know > Biology > Flashcards

Biology Flashcards

1
Q

Biology

True/False.

Science is made up of a collective of human observers, and (as such) it can make direct claims about how the world works.

A

False.

Science is simply the tool of observation/hypothesis/experimentation/discussion that we use to analyze the world around us. Science is not a being or collection of beings that can make claims about anything at all. Science is a process and tool.

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2
Q

Biology

The scientific process is an __________ (a priori / a posteriori) process.

A

The scientific process is an a posteriori process.

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3
Q

Biology

Science is based on ____able ___________.

A

Science is based on testable predictions.

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4
Q

Biology

What is the only reliable method human beings have found to differentiate what is true from what is false (i.e., imagination from reality)?

A

The scientific method

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5
Q

Biology

The human genome is made of ____________ base pairs.

A

The human genome is made of 3 billion base pairs.

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6
Q

Biology

The human genome is made of ____________ genes.

A

The human genome is made of 20,000 genes.

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7
Q

Biology

  • Before* accounting for DNA repair, what is the average number of base-pairing errors made by DNA polymerase?
  • After* accounting for DNA repair, what is the average number of base-pairing errors made by DNA polymerase?
A

1 per 100,000

1 per 1 billion

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8
Q

Biology

The 3 billion base pairs in our genome are not entirely made up by the 20,000 protein-coding genes.

What are some of the other segments of our genome?

A

Repetitive DNA sequences (~50% of genome)

Regulatory genes

Inactive genes

RNA(non-coding)-coding genes

Introns

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9
Q

Biology

Approximately ___% of the human genome is made up of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), which are viral gene sequences that have become a permanent part of the human lineage.

A

Approximately 8 % of the human genome is made up of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs), which are viral gene sequences that have become a permanent part of the human lineage.

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10
Q

Biology

What percent of our genome’s 3 billion base pairs is made up by the 20,000 protein-coding genes?

A

1 - 2%

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11
Q

Biology

Name some of the major molecular mechanisms of epigenetic changes.

A
  1. Covalent modification (e.g., CpG methylation; histone methylation)
  2. RNA regulation (transcriptional, MicroRNA, sRNA)
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12
Q

Biology

How long has life been evolving on the earth?

How long has complex life been evolving till today?

A

3 billion years

1 billion years

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13
Q

Biology

What structure contains homologous proteins to those found in bacterial flagella, also serves a beneficial function, and also projects from the cell membrane?

A

Type III secretion systems

(used by many modern bacteria, including Shigella and Salmonella)

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14
Q

Biology

Describe the evolutionary mechanism by which the human eye may have developed.

A
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15
Q

Biology

In the fairly pessimistic simulations run by Nilsson and Pelger, how long did it take for their simulated starting material (three cell layers: basal, photosensitive, and translucent) to become a fully functioning eye similar to a fish’s eye?

(Note: pessimistic here indicates that they made the mutation process more difficult than more optimistic simulations might.)

A

< 400,000 generations

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16
Q

Biology

Which modern-day evolutionary biologists have spent decades measuring various aspects of the Galapagos finches in order to show that natural selection can be directly observed in the finch population within the timeframe of a human lifespan (in other words, incredibly fast; much faster than Darwin suspected)?

A

Rosemary and Peter Grant

(NOTE: some morphological changes in the finch phenotypes were observed in as little as two years, not the thousands or millions of years one might expect.)

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17
Q

Biology

What are the three domains of life?

A

Eukarya

Prokarya

Archaea

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18
Q

Biology

What are the classifications of life connecting domains to individual species?

A

Domain >

Kingdom >

Phylum >

Class >

Order >

Family >

Genus >

Species

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19
Q

Biology

What mnemonic can be used to remember the classifications of life connecting domains to individual species?

Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus > Species

A

Dastardly King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti

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20
Q

Biology

Define meme as coined by Dawkins.

A

A unit of cultural information spread by imitation

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21
Q

Biology

How might it have been that RNA and DNA first came to be?

A

As descendents of earlier, more simplistic replicators (e.g. a proto-RNA)

(NOTE: there may have been multiple earlier replicators, out of which natural selection would have promoted the most efficient.)

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22
Q

Biology

Besides arising de novo in the primitive earth conditions of the Hadean (e.g. as indicated via the Miller-Urey experiments), how else might the building blocks of life (i.e. complex molecules such as peptides and RNA) have arisen on earth?

A

Asteroid impacts

  • (see Nicholas Hud’s research)*
    https: //scitechdaily.com/asteroid-remnants-can-help-explain-how-life-on-earth-began/
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23
Q

Biology

What is a simplified version of Dawkin’s extended phenotype?

A

All the external factors that our genes manipulate

(e.g. a bird’s nest is technically built by its genes)

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24
Q

Biology

Differences in what between two species can be used to quantify their evolutionary relationship?

A

Their genetic sequences

(Random mutations occur at a predictable rate;

note: natural selection can increase the rate at which a certain mutation predominates, so this measurement is only an estimate.)

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25
Q

Biology

Generally speaking, a mammal with 2x the mass (i.e. 2x the number of cells) of a smaller mammal will have what metabolic need per cell as compared to the smaller animal?

A

3/4 per cell (25% decrease)

  • (I.e., for every doubling in animal mass, the cells only have 3/4 the metabolic need per cell.)*
  • (E.g., an elephant’s cells would have 3/4 the metabolic need when compared to an animal half the elephant’s size.)*
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26
Q

Biology

Generally speaking, a mammal with 2x the mass (i.e. 2x the number of cells) of a smaller mammal will have what lifespan as compared to the smaller animal?

A

5/4 (25% increase)

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27
Q

Biology

In his now-disproved theory, Jean-Baptiste _________ proposed that the “use or disuse” of a trait dictated its heritability. In a classic example, giraffes who often stretched their necks would have offspring with longer necks than average.

A

In his now-disproved theory, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Lamarckian inheritance) proposed that the “use or disuse” of a trait dictated its heritability. In a classic example, giraffes who often stretched their necks would have offspring with longer necks than average.

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28
Q

Biology

What are the three main forms of evolutionary pressure through natural selection?

A

Directional,

stabilizing,

disruptive

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29
Q

Biology

Antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains are an example of what form of natural selection?

A

Directional

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30
Q

Biology

Human birth weights are an example of what form of natural selection?

A

Stabilizing

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31
Q

Biology

If one collective of horses has long manes and a separate one has developed short manes, what form of natural selection is illustrated?

A

Disruptive

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32
Q

Biology

What are the three forms of symbiosis?

A

Mutualism, commensalism, parasitism

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33
Q

Biology

________ evolution causes distinct lineages to evolve similar traits over time.

A

Parallel evolution causes distinct lineages to evolve similar traits over time.

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34
Q

Biology

________ evolution causes related groups to become increasingly different. I.e., they evolve apart.

A

Divergent evolution causes related groups to become increasingly different. I.e., they evolve apart.

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35
Q

Biology

________ evolution causes unrelated, originally dissimilar groups to become increasingly similar.

A

Convergent evolution causes unrelated, originally dissimilar groups to become increasingly similar.

36
Q

Biology

What evolutionary term refers to the condition where a small group founds a new population in a new environment, reproducing and creating a population defined by the small group’s genetic makeup?

A

The founder effect

37
Q

Biology

What evolutionary term refers to the condition where environmental pressures reduce a population to a relatively small group that then reproduces, meaning the growing population is defined by the small group’s genetic makeup?

A

The bottleneck effect

38
Q

Biology

Describe the basic difference between antigenic drift and antigenic shift.

A
39
Q

Biology

________ structures are anatomical features of two species that developed from the same part of a common ancestor.

A

Homologous structures are anatomical features of two species that developed from the same part of a common ancestor.

40
Q

Biology

________ structures are anatomical structures of two species that share a form or function, but did not develop from a common ancestor.

A

Analogous structures are anatomical structures of two species that share a form or function, but did not develop from a common ancestor.

41
Q

Biology

Which theory states that evolution occurs in short, rapid bursts within long periods of little change?

A

Punctuated Equilibrium Theory

42
Q

Biology

_________ occurs when a single species displays discrete phenotypic forms, such as Mendel’s green and yellow peas.

A

Polymorphism occurs when a single species displays discrete phenotypic forms, such as Mendel’s green and yellow peas.

43
Q

Biology

True/False.

Whales and hippos are extremely closely related.

A

True.

44
Q

Biology

What are three well-known kingdoms within eukarya?

A

Fungi

Animalia

Plantae

(also, Chromalveolata, Rhizaria, and Excavata)

45
Q

Biology

What are three less well-known kingdoms within eukarya?

A

Chromalveolata (di-ciliates)

Rhizaria (unicellular)

Excavata (some photosynthetic and parasitic organisms)

46
Q

Biology

Most Archaea are thought of as being what?

A

Extremophiles

47
Q

Biology

What term refers to a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization by sperm?

(Note: this can occur in some invertebrates and vertebrates.)

A

Parthenogenesis

48
Q

Biology

How many cells are there in the average human body?

A

~60 trillion

49
Q

Biology

Disorders evolving to increase resistance to infectious disease

Hemoglobinopathies confer some resistance against ___________.

Tay-Sachs disease confers some resistance against ___________.

Cystic fibrosis confer some resistance against ___________.

A

Disorders evolving to increase resistance to infectious disease

Hemoglobinopathies confer some resistance against malaria.

Tay-Sachs disease confers some resistance against tuberculosis.

Cystic fibrosis confer some resistance against cholera.

50
Q

Biology

What animal is a good example of an organism in-between flying and non-flying on the evolutionary tree?

A

Flying squirrels

(think normal squirrels vs. these gliders vs. bats)

51
Q

Biology

True/False.

Human beings and a few select animals (e.g. corvids, other primates, dolphins) are really the only organisms who learn.

A

False.

The neural networks of ants and many other ‘lower’ organisms are equipped to learn (e.g. ants memorizing the route from the nest to food).

52
Q

Biology

How do bees communicate the location of food to their comrades?

A

Via a dance

(the dance works based on the location of the sun, which the bee modifies if it has been a while since it located the food and the sun has since shifted)

53
Q

Biology

Bees communicate via intricate dances based on their positioning relative to the sun. What do they do if the day is cloudly?

A

They rely on the polarized light they can still detect through the clouds

54
Q

Biology

Besides pheromones, how do ants learn the path from their nest to food and back?

A

Their neural networks calculate the speed and time traveled at that speed in a certain direction, then they memorize the steps as direction changes

(So, if you pick up an ant and place him off course, he may follow the same memorized route back, but wind up far from the nest.)

55
Q

Biology

How do birds learn to navigate at night via the stars?

A

Spending hours as baby chicks watching the sky rotate around a fixed point (the north celestial pole) and they memorize the relevant constellations around it

56
Q

Biology

What naturally occurring phenonemon may be a good model for exploring the jump from unicellular to multicellular organisms?

A

Biofilms

(This phenomenon may be an example of a proto-body of sorts that only has to be connected in the right way by the already-present ion channels to form a sort of rudimentary nervous system.)

57
Q

Biology

What cellular structure is likely vital to the formation of communicative biofilms, shared cellular ‘experience,’ logic gates, neural networks, and eventual multicellularity?

A

Voltage-gated gap junctions

58
Q

Biology

How could a group of unicellular cells in a biofilm become a connected multicellular body that could reproduce from a single cell (although not necessarily specific in eventual number of the resultant organism)?

A

One only needs a mutation that allows for connectedness via gap junctions and a shared experience that is beneficial to the cell’s survival

(this cell type will out-reproduce the rest, replacing the colony)

59
Q

Biology

If any, name some examples of multicellular eukaryotes that create biofilms.

A

Certain fungi

Certain bioalgae

60
Q

Biology

Name the type of flatworm that has a nervous system, primitive brain, GI tract, light-sensitive eye patches, and that can asexually regenerate into two entirely whole creatures if a small portion is cut off (i.e. both the near-complete piece and the tiny piece form complete flatworms).

A

Planerian

61
Q

Biology

What is the record for the number of slices one can make in a single planerian and still have each slice regenerate into individual, whole planerians?

A

279

(So, cutting a single planerian into 279 pieces will yield 279 intact planerians. These little pieces reform into entire organisms within just a few weeks!)

62
Q

Biology

True/False.

Planerians are immortal due to their regenerative and telomerase activities, and they reproduce asexually through regeneration when cut into pieces; therefore, planerian bodies today are contiguous with the planerians of billions of years ago.

A

True.

63
Q

Biology

What hypothesis does Michael Levin suggest is the key to the planarian flatworm’s ability to regenerate oneself from a tiny piece of the original organism?

A

Subcellular cytoskeletal structures that outline the desired eventual shape and outcome (with more details in cell polarity and ion channel function)

64
Q

Biology

How does Michael Levin suggest we think about cancer cells in light of the topics of biofilms, unicellularity, and multicellularity?

A

It is a reversion to a unicellular, independent state

(in which the cells are no longer communicating/sharing properly)

65
Q

What is the significance of tiktaalik?

A

Found in arctic Canada, Tiktaalik is a prime example of a transitional fossil representing the move from water-based creatures to land-based creatures.

Tiktaalik is a type of fish, but with sturdier bones and a body organization that would have allowed it to prop itself up in shallow water.

It is likely an example of the transition from aquatic creatures to four-legged vertebrates (i.e., amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals).

66
Q

Biology

Most genetic mutations are __________ (beneficial/neutral/harmful).

A

Most genetic mutations are neutral.

67
Q

Biology

Why do spider legs curl inwards when the spider dies?

A

Spider legs have leg flexor muscles but few-to-no leg extensors.

Leg extension is pneumatically operated via increased hemolymph pressure throughout the limb.

When the spider dies, the pressure gradient dissipates.

68
Q

Biology

What is the blubber found on many cetaceans (e.g., dolphins) and pinnipeds (e.g., seals)?

A

Blubber is a more rigid, proteinaceous form of fat storage.

69
Q

Biology

How many chromosomes do most great apes have?

How are humans different?

A

48

Humans have two of the 24 pairs fused into a single chromosome 2, yielding 23 pairs

70
Q

Biology

How similar are human and chimpanzee genomes?

A

~96%

71
Q

Biology

Some gorillas have been noticed singing and humming while they eat (usually the dominant males). Why might this be?

A

This behavior has been thought to indicate that they are signaling contentment and safety to the rest of the group.

A cessation of singing and humming has been linked to a general state of unease among the troop.

72
Q

Biology

True/False.

Some chimpanzees laugh when tickled, maybe to signal that they are content/relaxed and not afraid.

A

True.

73
Q

Biology

Studies of chimpanzee gestures have shown that their communication often follows Zipf’s and Menzerath’s laws. What does this mean?

A

Zipf’s law - More frequently used terms are shorter than less common terms, and the most common word is 50% more frequent than the next word (which is 50% more frequent than the next, and so on).

Menzerath’s law - Longer sequences are made of shorter constituents.

These results indicate that animal communication may demonstrate some of the more basic elements of human communication. These results have been noted in macaque and dolphin communication as well.

74
Q

Biology

True/False.

All domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are technically the same species and are descended from a gray wolf (Canis lupus).

A

True.

In a similar way, all domestic cats are part of the species Felis catus.

75
Q

Biology

Single-celled organisms have evolved multicellularity around ____ times. Green algae has gone from a single cell to multicellular at least ____ times (that we know of).

A

Single-celled organisms have evolved multicellularity around 100** times. Green algae has gone from single-celled to multicellular at least **25 times (that we know of).

76
Q

Biology

Eukaryotes likely arose as a mixture of _______ and _______. The larger cell was likely _______, with _______ forming certain smaller structures like mitochondria.

A

Eukaryotes likely arose as a mixture of prokaryote** and **archea**. The larger cell was likely **archea**, with **prokaryotes forming certain smaller structures like mitochondria.

77
Q

Biology

Chimpanzees tend to laugh in what two situations in particular?

(And thus mirroring human behavior)

A

While tickling each other (mock aggression) and also while attacking rivals as a group (group aggression)

78
Q

Biology

One hypothesis proposes that sexual reproduction evolved as a tool for ________ evasion.

A

One hypothesis proposes that sexual reproduction evolved as a tool for pathogen evasion.

By combining half one’s DNA with half of another’s DNA, parents produce a child who is genetically distinct from either parent and may avoid (or at least postpone) pathogens that have evolved to harm either parents. (Pinker gives the analogy of changing the locks once per generation so the pathogens must come up with new keys.)

79
Q

Biology

In many animals, including humans, which sex typically chooses their mate and which sex typically competes to be chosen?

A

In many animals besides humans, the sex that plays the heavier investment into nurturing and growing and raising young is the one that chooses a mate, while the sex that plays a smaller role is the one that is more aggressively competing to be chosen.

(In some species where males carry offspring in pouches or sit on eggs or feed the young, the females are the aggressive competitors and the males are selective [opposite of humans]. Mammals typically follow the same set-up as humans.)

80
Q

Biology

Aggressive __________ breeds males who are larger and stronger than their female counterparts.

A

Aggressive competition breeds males who are larger and stronger than their female counterparts.

81
Q

Biology

Great apes:

________ have lots of aggressive male-male competition for females; ________ do as well; ________ can be aggressive but live in chaotic groups where no single male cannot dominate; ________ live in solitary, monogamous isolation.

A

Great apes:

Gorillas** have lots of aggressive male-male competition for females; **orangutans** do as well; **chimpanzees** can be aggressive but live in chaotic groups where no single male cannot dominate; **gibbons live in solitary, monogamous isolation.

82
Q

Biology

Gorilla males are ____x the size of their female counterparts.

Orangutan males are ____x the size of their female counterparts.

Chimpanzee males are ____x the size of their female counterparts.

Human males are ____x the size of their female counterparts.

Gibbon males are ____x the size of their female counterparts.

A

Gorilla males are 2.0x the size of their female counterparts.

Orangutan males are 1.7x the size of their female counterparts.

Chimpanzee males are 1.3x the size of their female counterparts.

Human males are 1.15x the size of their female counterparts.

Gibbon males are 1.0x the size of their female counterparts.

83
Q

Biology

Which increases the risk of deadbeat fatherhood in the animal kingdom, internal fertilization or external fertilization?

A

Internal fertilization leads to uncertainty of fatherhood and an increased risk of deadbeat fathers.

External fertilization (e.g. in some fish) allows males to be sure they are the father of a particular set of offspring, often increasing paternal involvement in feeding/protecting/nurturing the young.

84
Q

Biology

The level of female promiscuity in great apes can be estimated based on what anatomical feature of male great apes?

A

Testicle size

(Chimps have large testicles as males compete against one another by inseminating the same female; gorillas have small testicles as females only mate with one male at a time; humans have testicles slightly larger than gorillas and much smaller than chimps.)

85
Q

Biology

For what likely purpose do humans and many other apes have white sclera?

A

To allow for tracking one another’s eye movements (allowing for communication and reading of other’s intent via ocular movement)

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