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Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

Mitochondria

A 
semi-autonomous, contain some of their own genes 
mitochondrial DNA is passed via the mother
replicate independently (via binary fission)
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2
Q

Serial endosymbiosis theory

A

mitochondria evolved from an anaerobic prokaryote engulfing an aerobic prokaryote – creating a symbiotic relationship

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3
Q

Rough ER

A

studded with ribosomes, translates proteins for direct secretion into lumen

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4
Q

smooth ER

A

Used for lipid synthesis and detoxification of drugs/poisons
transports proteins from RER to Golgi apparatus

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5
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

stacked membrane bound sacs
can introduce signal sequences with direct delivery to specific cellular location
secretory vesicles merge with the membrane, contents are released via exocytosis

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6
Q

Peroxisomes

A

contain hydrogen peroxide

primary function: breakdown long fatty acid chains via beta-oxidation

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7
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

3 components: microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments

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8
Q

Microfilaments

A

solid polymerized rods of actin
actin filaments: bundles and networks resistant to compression and fracture
ex: cytokinesis, cleavage furrow

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9
Q

Microtubules

A

hollow polymers of tubulin proteins
radiate throughout the cell, provide primary pathways along motor proteins
Ex: cilia and flagella

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10
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

keratin, desmin, etc (diverse group)

Primary fx: cell to cell adhesion, maintenance, integrity of cytoskeleton

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11
Q

Epithelial Cells

A

polarized, one side faces lumen and/or outside world, the other faces underlying vessels/structural cells

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12
Q

Archaea

A

single celled organisms, “extremophiles”, similar to Eukarya however they have a circular chromosome, divide by binary fission/budding
Resistant to many antibiotics

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13
Q

facultative anaerobes

A

can toggle between oxygen and non oxygen environments

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14
Q

Aerotolerant anaerobes

A

unable to use oxygen for metabolism

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15
Q

Gram staining

A

gram + : envelope absorbs crystal violet stain – appears deep purple

Gram - : does not absorb crystal violet stain – appears pink/red

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16
Q

gram +

A

cell wall contains peptidoglycan, aid a pathogen by providing a coat of protection

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17
Q

gram -

A

cell wall is thin, minimal peptidoglycan

contains an outer membrane with phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides

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18
Q

Plasmids

A

carry DNA not necessary for survival, so it is not considered part of “genome”, but can help in resistance
carry virulence factors “extrachromosomal”

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19
Q

Genetic Recombination (3 types)

A

(3 Types) Transformation – Conjugation – Transduction

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20
Q

Transformation

A

integrate foreign genetic material into host genome

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21
Q

Conjugation

A

sexual reproduction

2 cells form conjugate bridge (via sex pili), transfer unidirectionally

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22
Q

Transduction

A

only recombination portion that requires a vector
virus carries genetic material from one bacteria to another
Transposons: genetic elements, capable of inserting/removing themselves

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23
Q

Series of Bacterial Growth Phases

A

lag phase – exponential phase – log phase – stationary phase – death phase

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24
Q

Bacteriophages

A

viruses that specifically target bacteria (by injection), contain a capsid, and a tail sheath, tail fibers

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25
Q

Viral Genomes

A

Positive sense: genome translated to fx proteins by ribosomes (similar to mRNA)
Negative Sense: require synthesis of RNA strand complementary to it – then used as a template for protein synthesis **RNA Replicase ensures the complementary strand is made

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26
Q

Retroviruses

A

Enveloped ssRNA, cells are infected indefinitely (HIV)
*requires reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA from ssRNA, then the DNA is integrated into the host’s DNA genome = means it must travel to the nucleus

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27
Q

Viral Life Cycle (Overview of steps)

A

Infection – Translation and Progeny Assembly – Progeny Release – Lystic and Lysogenic Cycles

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28
Q

Translation and Progeny Assembly

A

(post injection) – translation of genetic material in order to reproduce
DNA Viruses – must go to nucleus to be transcribed to mRNA
Viral genome must be returned to original form before packaging

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29
Q

Lystic

A

Bacteriophage maximal use of cell, cell swells with new visions, cell lyses, and other bacteria can then be infected

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30
Q

Lysogenic

A

If the cell does not lyse due to build up of cells, then it enters lysogenic cycle
virus will be replicated as bacterium reproduces

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31
Q

Prions

A

nonliving, infectious proteins

triggers miss-folding (reducing protein solubility, protein aggregates form, fx of cell is reduced)

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32
Q

Viroids

A

small pathogens, circular single stranded RNA

“plant pathogens”

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33
Q

Steps of Embryogensis

A

Morula – Blastula – gastrula

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34
Q

Gastrulation

A

Develops three layers:

  1. Ectoderm
  2. Mesoderm
  3. Endoderm
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35
Q
  1. Ectoderm
A 
outermost layer 
-integument (epidermis)
Develops into: 
Hair, nails
epithelia of nose, mouth, anal canal
Lens of eye
nervous system and adrenal medulla
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36
Q
  1. Mesoderm
A 
Musculoskeletal system
Circulatory system
Excretory system
connective/muscular tissue of digestive and respiratory tracts
Gonads
Adrenal cortex
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37
Q
  1. Endoderm
A 
Epithelial linings of digestive tract and respiratory tract
Lungs
bladder
liver
pancreas
thyroid
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38
Q

Induction

A

differentiation due to selective transcription

one group of cells influence another group

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39
Q

Neurolation

A

development of nervous system (after three divisions form)

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40
Q

Notochord

A

rod of mesodermal cells – develops into spine

-induces group of ectodermal cells to slide inward, forms neural folds, surround neural groove, fuse into neural tube

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41
Q

Tip of neural fold

A

made of neural crest cells
migrate to form peripheral nervous system
(sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, Schwann cells, specific cell types in other tissues)

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42
Q

three types of stem cells

A

totipotent: greatest potency, can become anything
pluripotent: already differentiated to three germ layers
multipotent: cells within a group

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43
Q

Autocrine signaling

A

signal same cell that released the signal

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44
Q

Paracrine signaling

A

signal acts on cells in local area

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45
Q

Juxtacrine signaling

A

not usually due to diffusion, cell directly stimulates adjacent cell

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46
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

hormones that travel influence target tissue

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47
Q

Morphogens

A

cause determination of cells
based on gradients
diffuse through organize, locations closer have higher concentrations

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48
Q

Fetal circulation

A
  • fHb: higher affinity to O2 than adult Hb
  • R side of heart: pulmonary circulation
  • L side of heart: systemic circulation
  • umbilical cord: contains more arteries than veins
  • oxygenation of blood occurs in placenta
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49
Q

Umbilical Arteries

A
  • carry blood away from fetus to placenta (deoxygenated blood)
    vs. adult arteries carry oxygenated blood away from heart/lungs to systemic circulation
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50
Q

Umbilical Veins

A
  • carry blood toward fetus from placenta (carrying oxygenated blood)
    vs. adult veins carry deoxygenated blood towards heat/lungs
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51
Q

3 fetal shunts

A

Foramen Ovale
Ductus Arteriosus
Ductus Venosus

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52
Q

Foramen Ovale

A

only shunt that connects the two chambers of the heart
-one way valve connects right atrium to left atrium
(allowing flow from R atrium to L atrium – thus bypassing ventricles)
-after birth, pressure differences reverses the shunts and closes them

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53
Q

Ductus Arteriosus

A

shunts leftover blood from pulmonary aorta to aorta

-direction depends on pressure differential between R and L side of the heart

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54
Q

Ductus Venosus

A

only shunt that bypasses the liver

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55
Q

First trimester development

A

-major organs develop
-heartbeat at 22 weeks
-eyes, gonads, limbs, liver start to form
@ 5 weeks: embryo 10mm
@ 7 weeks: cartilage (will become bone)
@ 8 weeks: embryo becomes a fetus

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56
Q

Second trimester development

A

tremendous growth, more amniotic fluid

-at the end: 30-36cm in length

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57
Q

Third trimester development

A
  • rapid growth, brain development

- 9th month antibodies move from mother to fetus

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58
Q

Birth

A

vaginal birth “parturition”
rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle
-coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin

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59
Q

Steps of vaginal birth

A

cervix thins – amniotic sac ruptures – strong uterine contractions – birth of fetus – placenta and umbilical cord (afterbirth) comes out

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60
Q

production of Myelin

A

produced by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS

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61
Q

Soma

A
  • cell body that contains nucleus (location of ER and ribosomes)
  • axons carry AWAY from the soma
  • dendrites carry TOWARD the soma (receives incoming messages)
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62
Q

Astrocytes

A

nourish neurones
form blood-brain barrier
controls transmission of solutes

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63
Q

Ependymal cells

A

line ventricles of the brain
produce cerebrospinal fluid
physically supports the brain
shock absorber

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64
Q

Microglia

A

phagocytic cells

ingest/breakdown waste products and pathogens in the CNS

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65
Q

Speed of nerve impulses

A

increase length = slower conduction

increase cross section = faster conduction

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66
Q

Three mechanisms for neurotransmitter removal

A
  1. broken-down by enzymatic reactions
  2. can be brought back into presynaptic neuron using re-uptake carriers
  3. they diffuse out of synaptic cleft
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67
Q

Brain: grey vs. white matter

A

Grey matter: unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites

White matter: axons encased in myelin

68
Q

preganglionic neuron

A

in sympathetic and parasympathetic: release acetylcholine

69
Q

Postganglionic neuron

A

in sympathetic: release norepinephrine

in parasympathetic: release acetylcholine

70
Q

Primary difference between somatic and autonomic nervous system

A

peripheral ANS contains two neurons, while motor neuron in somatic NS goes directly from spine to muscle (no synapsing)

71
Q

Monosynaptic vs. Polysynaptic Reflexes

A

Mono: single synapse between receiving sensory neuron and responding motor neuron (knee jerk)
Poly: at least one interneuron between sensory and motor neurons (withdrawal)

72
Q

Two hormones to maintain water homeostasis

A

ADH and Aldosterone

73
Q

ADH (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Peptide Hormone
Produced by: hypothalamus, released by posterior pituitary
Triggered by: low blood volume and increase in plasma osmolarity
Effect: increases water reabsorption in collecting duct, to decrease plasma osmolarity

74
Q

Aldosterone (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Steroid hormone - Mineralcorticoid
Produced by: Adrenal glands
Triggered by: decrease in blood volume (and pressure)
Effect: increases Na/K pump (excretion K and H, reabsorb Na) to increase blood volume, increase water reabsorption
Regulated by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

75
Q

Insulin (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by: Pancreas, released by pancreatic beta cells
Triggered by: high blood glucose
Effect: decreases blood glucose levels

76
Q

Glucagon (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by: Pancreas, released by pancreatic alpha cells
Triggered by: low blood glucose
Effect: increases blood glucose levels (stimulates glycogenolysis)

77
Q

Cortisol (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: steroid: glucocorticoid
Produced by: adrenal cortex
Triggered by: ACTH
Effect: increases blood glucose (by enhancing gluconeogensis, antagonizes insulin), decreased protein synthesis, inhibits immune system

78
Q

Epinephrine (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by: Adrenal Medulla
Triggered by: (stimulated by Sympathetic NS)
Effect: promotes glucogenolysis and fatty acid release from adipose tissue

79
Q

Thryoxine (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by: thyroid gland
Triggered by: (stimulated by TSH)
Effect: promotes metabolism, glycogenolysis, and sugar absorption by intestines

80
Q

Calcitonin (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Thyroid
Produced by: Parafollicular (C) cells in thyroid
Triggered by: high plasma calcium concentrations
Effect: decreases plasma calcium by promoting excretion by the kidneys, promotes Ca storage in bone

81
Q

Two major hormones to maintain glucose homeostasis

A

Insulin and Glucagon

82
Q

Two major hormones to maintain calcium homeostasis

A

Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (negative feedback)

83
Q

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Parathyroid
Produced by: parathyroid gland
Triggered by: low blood calcium
Effect: increases blood calcium, bone reabsorption, decreases excretion from kidneys, increases Ca reabsorption in gut

84
Q

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of FSH and LH

85
Q

Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of GH

86
Q

Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of TSH

87
Q

Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

88
Q

Prolactin-Inhibiting Factor (PIF or dopamine) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: inhibits release of prolactin

89
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated from hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes ovarian follicles (females), spermatogenesis (men)

90
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes ovulation (females), testosterone (men)

91
Q

Adrenocorticoid Hormone (ACTH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes synthesis and release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex

92
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

-produced by hypothalamus and released by pituitary
-composed of amino acids
-Acts as a 2nd messenger, relatively large
-derived from larger proteins, cleaved during post translational processing
-Polar, water soluble
-Cannot pass through plasma membrane
-rapid onset, short lived
Ex. ADH, Oxytocin

93
Q

Steroid Hormones

A
  • those in adrenal cortex and gonads
  • derived from cholesterol (-one, -ol, -oid)
  • minimally polar, lipid soluble,
  • Can pass plasma membrane
  • bind, promotes conformational change in cytosolic and intranuclear receptors
  • slow onset, long lived
  • cannot dissolve in bloodstream (must be carried by proteins)
94
Q

Amino Acid - derived hormones

A
  • modified amino acids

- epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, thryoxine

95
Q

Direct hormones vs. tropic hormones

A

direct: major effects on non-endocrine tissues
tropic: major effects on other endocrine tissues

96
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A

release in response to stimulation from hypothalamus

  • 4 tropic hormones (FLAT)
  • 3 direct hormones (PEG)
97
Q

FLAT PEG

A

FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH

Prolactin
Endorphines
GH

98
Q

Prolactin (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Direct hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: milk production
*increased prolactin in psychotic people on dopamine blocker medications

99
Q

Endorphins (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Direct hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: decreases pain perception, produces euphoria

100
Q

Growth Hormone (GH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Direct hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: grows bone, muscles, and shunts glucose towards this tissues
childhood deficiency = dwarfism

101
Q

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes synthesis and release of triiodothyronine and thyroxine in thyroid

102
Q

Oxytocin (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by: giving birth
Effect: promotes uterine contractions and milk ejection (+ feedback loop)

103
Q

Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Thyroid Hormone
Produced by: follicular cells, contains iodine
Triggered by:
Effect: increases/maintains basal metabolic rate

104
Q

Cortisone (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type: Steroid Hormone: Glucocorticoid
Produced by: adrenal cortex
Triggered by: ACTH stimulates its release
Effect:

105
Q

Two hormones produced by hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary

A

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin

106
Q

Adrenal Cortex and three steroid hormone classes

A

Glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone)
Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)
Cortical Sex Hormones (androgens and estrogen)

107
Q

Catecholamines (type, produced, trigger, effect)

A

Type:
Produced by: Adrenal Medulla (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes glucogenolysis, increases basal metabolic rate, increase HR, dilate bronchi, alter blood flow

108
Q

Three hormones synthesized in pancreas

A

Glucagon
Insulin
Somatostatin

109
Q

Flow of air when breathing

A

Air in – nares – nasal cavity – pharynx – larynx – trachea – bronchi – bronchioles

110
Q

pleural

A

covers the lungs, lines chest wall
visceral pleura: adjacent to lung
parietal pleura: lines chest wall
Intrapleural space: lies between 2 layers, contains thin layer of fluid

111
Q

Pulmonary Arteries

A

deoxygenated blood to lungs

112
Q

Pulmonary Veins

A

oxygenated blood out of lungs

113
Q

Adult circulatory pathway

A

R atrium - R ventricle - Pulmonary artery - lungs - pulmonary veins - L atrium - L ventricle - Aorta - Arteries - Arterioles - Capillaries - Venules - Veins - Vena cava - R atrium

114
Q

Cardio Electrical Conduction Pathway

A

Sinoatrial (SA) node - Atrioventricular (AV) node - Bundle of His - Purkinje Fibers

115
Q

Systole

A

period during ventricular contraction when AV nodes are closed, blood pumped out of ventricles

116
Q

Diastole

A

heart is relaxed, Semilunar valves are closed, blood from atria fills in

117
Q

Arteries vs veins

A

Arteries: thick, muscular, elastic, flow AWAY from heart
Veins: thin, inelastic, flow TOWARDS heart, valves maintain one way flow

118
Q

Three Portal Systems

A
  1. Hepatic Portal System
  2. Hypophyseal Portal System
  3. Renal Portal System
119
Q

Hepatic Portal System

A

gut capillary bed to liver capillary bed via the hepatic portal vein

120
Q

Hypophyseal Portal System

A

Hypothalamus capillary bed to anterior pituitary capillary bed

121
Q

Renal Portal System

A

glomerulus to vasa recta via efferent arteriole

122
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Red Blood Cells

lack mitochondria, nucleus, and organelles to allow hemoglobin

123
Q

Leukocytes

A

White Blood Cells

found in bone marrow: granular leukocytes and agranulocytes

124
Q

Granular Leukocytes

A

Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils

Part of nonspecific immunity

125
Q

Agranulocytes

A

lymphocytes and monocytes

Part of specific immunity

126
Q

Thrombocytes

A

Platelets, required for coagulation

127
Q

Innate Immunity

A

“Nonspecific Immunity”, always active

  • noncellular components: nonspecific responses, skin, mucus, tears/saliva, stomach, complement system, interferons
  • Cellular components: macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, granulocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
128
Q

Complement System

A

Innate Immunity

-punches holes in cell walls of bacteria, marks them osmotically unstable

129
Q

Interferons

A

Innate Immunity
-dispersed by virally infected cells
prevent viral replication

130
Q

Macrophages

A

ingest and present on MHC, secrete cytokines
MHC Class I: in all nucleated cells, display endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T cells
MHC Class II: in all professional antigen cells, display exogenous antigens on helper T cells

131
Q

Dendritic Cells

A

antigen-presenting cells on skin

132
Q

Natural Killer Cells

A

attack cells not on MHC molecules (including viral infected and cancer cells)

133
Q

Granulocytes

A

Neutrophils: ingest bacteria, follow via chemotaxis
Eosinophils: allergen reactions, release histamine
Basophils: allergic reactions, mast cells

134
Q

Two divisions of Adaptive Immune System

A

Humoral Immunity or Cell Mediated (cytotoxic) Immunity

135
Q

Humoral Immunity

A

centered on antibody production by plasma cells (activated B cells)

  • variable region on an antibody: tip is antigen binding region
  • Memory B cells: lie and wait for the second exposure
136
Q

Cell-Mediated (cytotoxic) Immunity

A

centered around T cells
Helper T cells: respond to MHC-II, coordinates immune sytem
Cytotoxic T cells: respond to MHC-I, kills virally infected cells
Suppressor T cells: tone down immune response, helps with tolerance
Memory T cells: similar to memory B cells

137
Q

Pathway of Digestion

A

Oral cavity - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - duodenum- small intestine (jejunum, ileum) - large intestine - rectum

138
Q

Key regulators for Ingestion/Digestion

A

ADH + Aldosterone: promotes thirst
Glucagon + Ghrelin: promotes hunger
Leptin and cholecystokinin: promotes satiety

139
Q

Secretory cells that line the stomach

A

Mucous Cells: protects stomach
Chief cells: secretes pepsinogen
Parietal cells: secretes Hal and Intrinsic factor (B12 absorption)
G-cells: secretes gastrin (peptide hormone, increases Hcl secretion)

140
Q

Parts of the small intestine

A

duodenum: primarily chemical digestion

jejunum and ileum: primarily absorption

141
Q

Parts of the large intestine

A

cecum: accepts fluid from small intestine
colon: divided into portions
Rectum: stores feces

142
Q

Segments of the nephron

A
  1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): bulk reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, soluble vitamins, salt, water
    - site of secretion of H, K, ammonia, Urea
  2. Descending Limb of Loop of Henle: only permeable water, not salt.
    - vasa recta and nephron flow in opposite directions, countercurrent multiplier
  3. Ascending loop of Henle: permeable to salt, impermeable to water
  4. Distal convoluted tubule: responsive to aldosterone, salt reabsorption, waste excretion
  5. Collecting duct: responsive to aldosterone, ADH
143
Q

Skin Layers

A

Epidermis then dermis then hypodermis

144
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

A 
"Can't Let Gee's Skin Bleed"
stratum-
Corneum
Lucidum
Granulosom
Spinosum
Basale
145
Q

Layers of the dermis

A

Papillary layer

Reticular Layer

146
Q

Langerhan Cells

A

special macrophages, antigen presenting at cells on skin

147
Q

Sensory Cells in dermis

A 
Merkel Cells: Deep pressure, texture
Free nerve endings
Meissner's corpuscles: light touch
Ruffini endings: stretch
Pacinian Corpuscles: Deep pressure, vibration
148
Q

Three Types of Muscles

A

Skeletal, Smooth, Cardiac

149
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A

support, movement, propulsion of blood in venous system, thermoregulation
-striated
-voluntary
-polynucleated
Red fibers: slow twitch, oxidative phosphorylation
White fibers: fast-twitch, anaerobic metabolism

150
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

respiratory, reproductive, cardiovascular, digestive systems

-non-striated, involuntary, uninucleate, myogenic activity

151
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A

Contractile tissue

  • striated
  • involuntary, uninucleated, myogenic activity, connected via intercalated discs w/ gap junctions
152
Q

Sarcomere

A

Contractile unit of striated muscle
Think (myosin) + thin (actin) filaments
thin filament (troponin, tropomyosin) regulate activity

153
Q

Sarcomere Structure

A

I band: only thin
H zone: only thick
A band: entire thick (only part that doesn’t change during contraction)
Z line to Z line is one entire sarcomere

154
Q

Muscle contraction pathway

A

depolarization down sarcolemma – T tubules are triggered – Calcium is released – Calcium binds to troponin – Tropomyosin shifts – myosin binding sites are exposed – actin filaments bind

155
Q

Tendons vs. ligaments

A

tendons: bone to muscle
ligaments: bone to bone

156
Q

Bone remodeling

A

Osteoblasts and osteoclasts
PTH: increases Ca and P in blood
Vitamin D: increases production of stronger bone
Calcitonin: increases bone formation, decreases Ca in blood

157
Q

Six types of Mutations (nucleotide changes)

A 
"Please, No More Stupid Facebook Invites"
Point Mutations
Nonsense Mutations
Missense Mutations
Silent Mutations
Frameshift Mutations
Insertion/Deletion Mutations
158
Q

Point Mutations

A

sub one nucleotide for another

159
Q

Nonsense Mutations

A

sub stop codon for another amino acid

160
Q

Missense Mutations

A

sub one amino acid for another

161
Q

Silent Mutations

A

no effect on protein

162
Q

Frameshift Mutations

A

Moving 3 letter reading frame

163
Q

Insertion/deletion Mutations

A

change reading frame, all downstream amino acids are different

164
Q

Five types of Mutations (chromosomal)

A

“I Dont Do International Travel”
Inversion Mutations: segment reversed
Deletion Mutations: lrg segment lost
Duplication Mutations: segment is copied multiple times
Insertion Mutations: segment is moved from one chromosome to another
Translocation Mutations: segment is swapped with another on different chromosome

165
Q

Positive Sense-RNA viruses

A

stays in the cytoplasm, directly translated into proteins by host cell ribosomes

166
Q

negative sense-RNA viruses

A

require complementary RNNA strand synthesis via RNA Replicase

167
Q

DNA Viruses (post infection)

A

likely requires RNA polymerase

enters nucleus – transcribed into mRNA – mRNA goes to cytoplasm – translated into proteins

MCAT Prep (11 decks)

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