Biological

Question 1

What is Cell body

Answer 1

• Main part of cell, contains nucleus and mitochondria.

Question 2

What is the Nucleus

Answer 2

• The nucleus-Houses genetic material for cell

Question 3

What is the Mitochondria

Answer 3

• The mitochondria- Site of aerobic respiration where energy is released from glucose. Provides cells with energy.
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Question 4

What is dendrites?

Answer 4

branches at top end of neuron, attached to cell body and receives messages from other neurons to trigger action potential (Electrical impulse) within cell.

Question 5

What is the axon?

Answer 5

• The axon long, branch extension of cell body, passes electrical impulse down to end of neuron to allow communication with other neurons.
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Question 6

What is the axon hillock

Answer 6

triggers nerve impulse and connects cell body to axon

Question 7

What is the Myelin Sheath?

Answer 7

Fatty deposit that surrounds and electrically insulates axon to help speed up message transmission rate and allows for electrical nerve impulses to be passed along. Insulates (Keeps in impulses)

Question 8

What is Nodes of Ranvier?

Answer 8

breaks between cells along adjacent myelin sheath.

Question 9

What is the Axon terminal?

Answer 9

Axon terminals are at end of axon, at end of these are terminal buttons/boutons. Axon terminals pass nerve impulses from cell body to parts of the body they control/activate (Muscle, gland, Another neuron.)

Question 10

What are terminal buttons/boutons?

Answer 10

Very end of neuron where nerve impulse becomes a chemical message that can be passed to dendrite of another neuron.

Question 11

What are vesicles?

Answer 11

Tiny sacs that contain molecules of neurotransmitter chemicals.

Question 12

What are Neurotransmitters?

Answer 12

Chemicals that passes messages between neurons.

Question 13

What is action potential?

Answer 13

Action Potential-
-Beginning of one cell communicating with another, leads to synaptic transmission.
-Actual method by which nerve impulse travels down axon of neuron to stimulate release of neurotransmitters, tiny electrical impulse triggered by change of neuron’s electrical potential.
Neurons have resting membrane potential of about -70mV meaning that inside of neuron has slight negative charge in relation to outside. When neuron receives message from another neuron, this chemical message can either stimulate an Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (Reduced charge by depolarisation), Sodium channels (S-) open in response to stimulus and can generate transmission along axon or Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (Increased charge by hyperpolarisation) opening of Potassium (K+ Channels) due to stimulus
More excitatory than inhibitory means that action potential will occur.

Question 14

What is synaptic transmission?

Answer 14

Synaptic transmission
when the action potential reaches axon terminal (From axon Hillock), calcium channels will obey, flooding terminal buttons with calcium ions. Vesicles containing neurotransmitter substance released, travels down to outer membrane of terminal button where vesicle casing will fuse with membrane and allow for neurotransmitter to be released from vesicle into synaptic cleft.
Receptors on postsynaptic neuron designed to bind to specific neurotransmitter and when detected, the neurotransmitter molecule will then be absorbed by postsynaptic neuron. Any neurotransmitter molecules not absorbed by receptors of postsynaptic neuron then will either diffuse away (be destroyed), or neurotransmitters will be absorbed again by presynaptic neuron (Reuptake) and they are recycled, ready to be fired again. Reabsorbed molecules will be destroyed by enzymes within neuron to “Turn off” neuron in preparation for future action potential.

Question 15

What are recreational drugs?

Answer 15

They alter brain function which results in changes of mood, perception and conscious experience
For this reason they are called psychoactive drugs

Question 16

Why do recreational drugs lead to becoming addicted?

Answer 16

Recreational drugs change function of neurotransmitters is brain, by preventing enzymes from breaking down dopamine neurotransmitter, leading to more dopamine being in synaptic cleft and going through reuptake via pre-synaptic neuron, this causes intense feeling of euphoria while dopamine remains. The body responds by down-regulating (reducing) the amount of dopamine naturally in body, and so eventually, when drug has worn off, less dopamine in brain then there was before.
natural activities make a smoother curve, dopamine level increases and decreases at lower difference
With drugs, spiking occurs (Euphoria), down-regulation of dopamine leads to severe drop of dopamine levels (Dysphoria)
Therefore, person becomes dependent on drug to take away negative feelings, (Dysphoria) and they also become tolerant (Meaning that more of the drug is needed to cause same feeling), leads to addiction

Question 17

What is the historical context of the brain?

Answer 17

There is evidence that shows some basic brain function was understood early in, fossil evidence shows that trepanning (Drilling hole into skull to treat problems on brain surface) was done in connection with migraines and brain functioning. Hippocrates, (Greek) put forward idea that each side/hemisphere of our brain served a distinct function. In 19th century, phrenology (Mapping bumps on person’s skull and using these to deduce aspects of person’s character) was introduced by Franz Joseph Gall.
Phineas Gage, railway worker in 1848 USA, iron rod in head, the iron entered through Gage’s cheek, passed through his brain, and shot out of the top of his head and through frontal lobe., for remaining 11 years of life, he went from being reliable and civil, calm to irresponsible, violent, unsociable, aggressive, irreverent (disrespectful),personality changed “fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires - John Harlow (1868)”. Phineas Gage’s memory wasn’t affected as memory is in temporal lobe. Prefrontal cortex/lobe damage (Brain area just behind forehead) was to be blamed for personality change.
Series of case studies like Phineas allowed for brain to be mapped by physicians. Paul Broca, neuroscientist, and physician treated stroke patients in 19th century. His most famous case study was that of a patient known as ‘Tan’, who lost ability to say words other than tan, through post-mortem examination, lower part of left frontal lobe damage was found, now known as Broca’s area, is responsible for motor control in speech production, damage to this area causes difficulty replying to speech
Wernicke’s area, named after Carl Wernicke, 19th century German neurologist, situated at rear of left of temporal lobe as it joins parietal lobe, involved with speech understanding. Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia (disturbance of language production/comprehension due to brain dysfunction/damage) produce meaningless speech.
Scientists have built functional map of brain using research, case studies, neuroimaging techniques, no longer rely on lesion studies (Investigating effect of specific brain area on behaviour)

Question 18

How is brain trauma linked to aggressive behaviour?

Answer 18

Case of Phineas Gage demonstrated that damage to frontal lobes in the brain may have caused him to show an increase in aggressive behaviour which suggests a possible biological basis for aggression.
Frontal lobe damage may serve as biological basis for aggression.
Experiments conducted on cats, rodents and investigated biological structure of brain that underlies aggression.
Hypothalamus damage affects aggression.
Studies show three different, specific types of behaviour:
Offensive behaviour- Physically attacking another animal, intention to harm. Medial Hypothalamus damage
Defensive behaviour- Shown in response to attack threat. Dorsal hypothalamus damage
Predatory aggression- Attacking other species to gain food. Lateral Hypothalamus damage
Lesions/ damage to different areas of the brain has been shown to activate behaviour associated specifically with one type of aggression.

Question 19

How does midbrain affect aggression?

Answer 19

Midbrain-Contains an area called periaqueductal grey matter (PAG, area of grey matter within midbrain which plays a role in pain modulation and defensive behaviour) which links amygdala and hypothalamus with prefrontal cortex (Seen before in Phineas Gage). Has a role in co-ordinating and integrating behavioural responses to perceived internal and external stressors such as pain and threat , can be images, and sounds also (Detecting whether something is threatening). Regulating pain and external behaviour. Responses are co-ordinated in prefrontal cortex. Lesions to PAG in rats that have recently given birth (Protective) show increase in aggression when rats confronted with potential threat i.e. unfamiliar male rats (who may kill babies who are not there’s) in cage (Lonstein and Stern 1998).

Question 20

How does amygdala affect aggression?

Answer 20

Amygdala- linked to PAG, Centre for Emotions, emotional behaviour, motivation. Integrates internal and external stimuli, and every sensory modality has input, which when combined gives us an instinctive feeling/reaction to environment that will include aggression. Prefrontal cortex also connects to amygdala and may lead to expression of aggression. Prefrontal cortex weighs out pros and cons of expressing aggression.

Question 21

How does hypothalamus affect aggression?

Answer 21

Hypothalamus-Maintains homeostasis (Response which maintains human body in reaction to change in external conditions) through hormone regulation (Including sexual function), linked to aggressive behaviour in males via testosterone production.

Question 22

How does prefrontal cortex affect aggression?

Answer 22

Prefrontal cortex-Sits right behind forehead, at front of forehead governs behavioural regulation and social interaction (Is this acceptable, how am I going to look?) , delays gratification (Want for satisfaction), impulse control and has connections to amygdala and hypothalamus, damage normally results in problems with anger management, irritability, impulse control.

Question 23

Evaluating using animals for brain trauma research

Answer 23

Advantages
· Prevents unethical research with humans being conducted
· Animals such as rats bred for testing and so are easily/readily available
· Researchers are now required to conduct cost-benefit analysis to ensure what they are using animals for is justified and necessary as ethical issues as damaging animals brain (Lesion), are included and are harmful. Is benefit of research outweighing harm to animal.
· Some basic brain structures are similar across species so animal research is useful; for understanding aggression human aggression
Disadvantages
· Difficult to generalise results of small animals brain structure in association with aggression as , even though brain structures in animals are similar, the human brain is more complex
· Difficulty with generalisations across species to humans as our brains and emotions are much more complex than animals
· Some researchers argue that there are some basic similarities and so there is generalisability but to a limited extent
· Some argue that the use of animals is immoral

Question 24

Evaluate Brain structure effect on aggression

Answer 24

upport for the link between brain function/structure and aggression comes from human case studies i.e Phineas Gage whose social behaviour was largely affected by prefrontal cortex damage, from calm, well-mannered, social, to aggressive, irritable, and using profanity
2. However, he’s a single case and unique, so effects of brain damage may not represent all humans (Idiographic- Focuses on specific person), although other case studies also support involvement of prefrontal cortex and relation to aggressive behaviour (Adds credibility)
3. More specific support comes from Raine et al (1997) who used a sample of 41 murderers and found lower prefrontal cortex activity in PET scans
4. Raine conducted research on Prisoners from New Mexico, and found that they had smaller amygdala (Responsible for emotions and emotional responses)
5. Biological approach to explain aggression supports genetic basis because our genetic information determines are brain structure, therefore males are predisposed to be more aggression compared to females.

Question 25

Apply Issues and debates to effect of brain structure on aggression?- Psychology as a science

Answer 25

· Psychology as a science- Use of animals in psychological investigations allows for scientific rigour to be applied. More control is possible as animal can be genetically bred for specific study and their environment is carefully monitored. This removes chance of extraneous variables affecting the outcome the study, making the studies using animals extremely well controlled, enabling objective data to be gathered, leading to clear cause and effect conclusions being drawn. This level of control would not be possible with human participants due to ethical considerations.
· Using objective data collection such as PET scans (Factual) and experiments which are controlled give a scientific basis.

Question 26

What is aim and hypothesis for Classic study for biological Psychology

Answer 26

Raine et al. (1997)
Aim: To investigate if there is a difference in the structure of the brain activity between people who have committed murders (NGRI’s- Not Guilty for Reason of Insanity) and non-murderers
Hypothesis: That participants pleading NGRI would show brain dysfunctions in areas of the brain associated with violence.

Question 27

Evaluate classic study for Biological psychology

Answer 27

Aim- To investigate brain abnormalities and aggressive behaviour in murderers (NGRI)
Sample- Two groups of 41 people, 39 males, 2 females in each group.
Sample is somewhat large (82 People) which was largest at time for study, results representative of wider population. The sample is androcentric, uneven balance of males and females in group, this is a limitation as results regarding brain and behaviour may be difficult to generalise to females.
Method 1- The study used PET scanning. AO3- PET is an objective, brain-imaging technique which can be easily replicated, re-tested for reliability, however the interpretations of the PET may be subjective due to the unclear images/results which can lower reliability.
Method 2- Controlled and standardised procedure increases cause-and-effect of brain structure + aggression, higher internal validity of results. Raine used CPT CPT used by Raine can be criticised for being artificial, including the idea of participants using unusual task in unusual mental state, which can lower ecological validity of study as it’s unrepresentative of everyday life.
Results Application- Application to real life because it provides the possibility that biological factors impact murderer’s behaviour and you can predict a person’s future, violent behaviour, could be used to determine/predict whether teenage violence will be continued and whether prisoners should be released.
Brain dysfunction in NGRI group was in areas previously implicated with violent behaviour. Compared to control groups, murderers shown-Lower activity in prefrontal cortex (Lateral and medial areas)
Asymmetrical Amygdala, Medial Temporal lobe, and thalamus activity (All had lower in left side but higher in right)
Conclusion
Brain differences associated with many behavioural changes that can be related to violent behaviour. For example, dysfunction in prefrontal cortex linked to impulsivity, lack of self-control, inability to learn from behavioural consequences. Hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus related to learning, suggests criminals unable to modify behaviour as they can’t learn from consequences of actions.
General Conclusion- Study is strong in the fact that it used an objective data collection method (PET Scans) which increase reliability in study and that results, aims and conclusions are highly applicable to understandings of biological effects on murderer behaviour and whether prisoners should be released or not, based on their brain structure, however the study has limitations such as the effect of extraneous variables and situational factors on results (Lower internal validity), and the androcentric sample (39 men, 2 women) which limits generalisability of results regarding brain damage to women.

Question 28

Apply Issues and debates to effect of brain structure on aggression?- Social Control

Answer 28

· Social Control (Controlling people)- in Mid-20th century, knowledge was used to “treat” aggressive mental patients by performing prefrontal lobotomy (Operation that severed connection between limbic system which is part of our reward pathway, and prefrontal cortex), this was effective in reducing aggression but it also reduced all other emotional reactions to and is no longer considered as ethical. Common practice as biological approach was widely popular

·

Question 29

Apply Issues and debates to effect of brain structure on aggression?- Reductionism

Answer 29

Reductionism- It could be argued that brain functioning as an explanation for aggression is reductionist. It reduces the production of aggressive behaviour and all that entails down to working of specific neural circuits and ignores all other possible causes such as social learning. There are cultures that show much higher than average aggression and cultures that show much lower levels. This is unlikely to be due to differences in brain structure but very likely caused by social learning.
· Reductionist- Simplifying human behaviour to very specific factors (Reduces/ignores influence of other aspects I.e. people, environment, lifestyle)
· Biological Point of view highly reductionist

Question 30

Apply Issues and debates to effect of brain structure on aggression?- Determinism

Answer 30

· Determinism- The argument is known as biological determinism, which is the view that your behaviour is predetermined by your biological makeup and you as an individual have no free will/ choice as to how you behave, so those people with smaller amygdala and low activity in prefrontal cortex are destined to be aggressive.
· These ideas can be used as defence for violence with the argument that aggressive behaviour of some offenders could be result of genetic determination and biological makeup, as was the case in Raine’s research.
· This could provide excuse for some people to be violent as they can say behaviour is beyond their control and therefore they’re not responsible for violent outbursts, could limit willingness to engage in treatments such as anger management programmes as they may believe them to be useless in the face of biological factors, if behaviour is predetermined. Ignoring nurture effect on behaviour.
· Determinism- Determinism in psychology is the philosophical position or assumption that all events, including human behaviour, have a specific cause that is predetermined

Question 31

What is the sample + procedure for classic study? Biological Psych

Answer 31

Procedure:
Sample- Two groups of 41 people, 39 males, 2 females in each group. (82 people in total)
Experimental group- 41 criminals with convictions for murder/manslaughter who were being tested to gain evidence to support claim of NGRI.
Of these:
* 6 had schizophrenia
* 23 had suffered organic brain damage/head injury,
* 3 were substance abusers
Control group matched with experimental group on age and gender. Screened for general health (Physical examination, medical history, psychiatric interview), participants excluded if they had history of seizures, substance misuse, head trauma, consent obtained from all participants before PET was administered.
All participants given continuous performance task (CPT) to complete. Sequence of blurred numbers to focus on. Participants started CPT as a practice trial 10 minutes before being injected with Flucodeoxyglucose (FDG). After 32 minutes on CPT, PET scan completed to measure metabolic rate in different brain areas to look at activity levels in areas. (PET done on ppts who were medication free for 2 weeks)

Question 32

What is the findings + Conclusions for classic study? Biological Psych

Answer 32

Findings:
Brain dysfunction in NGRI group was in areas previously implicated with violent behaviour. Compared to control groups, murderers showed:
* Lower activity in prefrontal cortex (Lateral and medial areas)
* Higher activity in occipital lobe
* Identical activity in temporal lobe
Asymmetrical Amygdala, (had lower activity in left side but higher activity in right side)
Conclusion: Brain differences associated with many behavioural changes that can be related to violent behaviour. For example, dysfunction in prefrontal cortex linked to impulsivity, lack of self-control, inability to learn from behavioural consequences. Hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus related to learning, suggests criminals unable to modify behaviour as they can’t learn from consequences of actions.

Question 33

What is the aim and sample for contemporary study in Biological Psychology?

Answer 33

Aim-
* See if social aggression could be caused by genes or environment.
* See if social aggression shared same cause as physical aggression.
* See if one type of aggression leads to another type.
Sample
* Participants for study recruited from Quebec New-born Twin Study (QNTS) and were all pairs of twins born between November 1995 and July 1998.
* 322 pairs tested, 234 had complete data at all stages.
* Of these pairs, 33 were MZ Males, 50 were MZ females, 41 DZ males, 32 DZ females, and 67 were mixed sex DZ twins

Question 34

What is the procedure of contemporary study?

Answer 34

Procedure
* Data from sample gathered at 5,18,30,38, 60 months, then again at age 6 as final data. Data consisted of two ratings of twin’s behaviour, one from teacher, one from classmates, gathered in spring term to ensure pps are well known and behavioural ratings are accurate
* Teacher ratings based on statements from Preschool Social Behaviour Scale (PBBS, Crick et al 1997) and Direct and Indirect aggression scale (Bjorkvist, Lagerspetz et al 1992) such as “To what extent does the child get into fights” (Physical Aggression) and “To what extent does the child try to make others dislike a child” (Social Aggression)
* Each statement scored on 3-point scale (0=never, 1=sometimes, 2=often)
* Peer ratings done with classmates by fiving each child in twin’s class a booklet containing photos of children in class, children asked to circle three pictures of children that matched behavioural descriptions like examples before
* Each twin given physical and social aggression score from teacher ratings.
* Peer selections on social or physical aggression descriptors that were made of each twin also recorded.

Question 35

What are the results and conclusions of contemporary study?

Answer 35

Results
Scores for social aggression similar between MZ and DZ twins. Scores for physical aggression more similar in MZ twins both from teachers and peers than in DZ twins.
Conclusion
Data suggested physical aggression may lead to social, but social aggression won’t lead to physical.
*Strong genetic component to physical aggression but not social, which may be caused by environmental effects.
* Children more physically aggressive showed more social aggression because of interaction of genes and environment.
* As children grow, they become more socially aggressive because of social conventions on physical violence and developing different ways to express themselves

Question 36

Evaluate contemporary study

Answer 36

Sample- 332 Twin pairs from Quebec New-born twin study, born between November 1995 and July 1998
234 participants used in results (All gathered)
MZ- Male- 44, Female- 50, DZ- Male- 41, Female-32, Mixed pairs – 67
Sample is strong in the fact that it is large, meaning that anomalies (Children with too high or too low aggression levels) will be averaged out, more representative and more generalisable, however a limitation of the sample is that it excluded 88 ppts who may have unique or unusual backgrounds, may limit generalisability of study (Limitation).
Method 1- Study didn’t control for extraneous variables i.e. twins influencing one another’s behaviour, which can limit internal validity of results (Limitation).Twin studies are a valid means of studying nature vs nurture - MZ twins share 100% of their genotype, DZ no more than 50% - both share same home life - if MZ twins share behavior that DZ do not, it’s likely due to genotype
Method 2- Study uses pre-existing questionnaires which can be replicated and results can be tested for reliability (Strength), the questionnaires are limited in reliability as they were translated, questions could be mistranslated and original question could be lost, resulting in inaccurate answers (Weakness).
Conclusion- Physical aggression caused by genetics and social aggression caused by environmental factors
Physical aggression can result in social aggression i.e. Young child may be physically aggressive, as they grow they may develop in language and cognition, leading to them developing more socially desirable way of aggression (Social aggression)
The conclusions have high application to early interventions for social aggression to prevent factors such as bullying occurring, if a child of young age is showing early signs of physical aggression, this insinuates social aggression may occur, so should provide anti-bullying classes alongside interventions for physical aggression (Anger-management). (Strength)
To conclude, study is highly strong in its replicable method of questionnaires which allows for results to be tested for reliability, the results are highly applicable to understanding and intervening in social aggression, however the study lacks control, resulting in lowered external validity of results, study involves limited, unrepresentative sample (88 Ppts excluded) which limits generalisability for results.

Question 37

Explain link between Evolution and Aggression

Answer 37

Evolution and aggression
In evolutionary terms, success is measured by production of offspring that survive to reproductive maturity. In the EEA, successful males physically bigger and stronger so would be those most capable of providing of and protecting mates and offspring. Psychologically, males would have adaptive advantage as they were naturally more aggressive when resources were threatened.
Gave advantage of mate choice. Successful females chose mates who provided good genes, big, strong men favoured. Such men were also more likely to provide better resources in terms of food (Hunting and keeping food safe) and protection towards offspring and women against predators and other males who may kill wife or offspring, suggesting that those who displayed aggressive traits would be more successful than those who didn’t, competition for mates has driven masculine aggression.
Male brains do have minor structural differences in comparison to females partially due to much higher testosterone exposure before and after birth. It has been argued that these differences are linked to typical male attributes and abilities such as spatial awareness.
Ancient skulls and fossils may show that trepanning was used to investigate effect of brain structure on aggression. (Drilling holes into brain as surgical intervention)
Post-hoc theory as developed to fit the

Theory would also suggest that females would be less physically aggressive as it’d be an evolutionary disadvantage for females who’d spend long time-periods pregnant, breastfeeding, looking after vulnerable young children to ensure their survival and gathering foods such as fruit and berries. According to evolutionary psychology, this is why female aggression is more verbal/emotional instead of physical. Buss (1999) proposed that females would still be in competition for best mates but achieved victory by criticising other females to potential mates to make them appear less attractive. Hypothesis has been experimentally tested and found support.
Males in general have higher testosterone levels than females, especially during puberty which may increase aggression. Great deal of evidence suggesting that testosterone levels are associated with aggression, e.g Mazur 1984 showed a marked increase in inter-male fighting around puberty where rapid increase in testosterone occurs.
If these ideas are valid, we may expect physical difference in brain structure/chemistry of males and females, which would lead to greater expression of aggression in males. We would also expect to see greater degree of aggression among males than among females and those animals to which we are more closely genetically related would show similar behaviour. Ultimately, any evolutionary theory is developed to fit facts, difficult to prove ideas as cannot be scientifically tested and there’s limited fossil records for behaviour, EEA cannot be empirically tested.

Question 38

Describe and Evaluate
Computerised Axial Tomography

Answer 38

CAT
Passing X-rays into the head, but unlike a standard X-ray where beam is focused on specific area, multiple beams are passed around head at different angles to gather info. Detailed images developed by computer interpretation.
Strengths
* They’re quick to conduct and can give accurate details of brain structure to advise treatment and plan a surgery.
Weaknesses
* X-rays in CAT can pose a risk to patients as they involve radiation exposure,
Strength/Resolution- cost-benefit analysis conducted where they’re only used if benefit of diagnosis outweighs radiation risk.
* X-ray exposure can damage unborn baby of pregnant women

Question 39

Describe and Evaluate Positron Emission Tomography

Answer 39

PET
Form of nuclear medicine procedure, they involve injecting the patient with a small amount of radioactive material in order to conduct the scan. Patients having PET scan of brain will be injected by Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), which is tracer substance absorbed into the bloodstream. A task may be used to stimulate their brain (Raine et al 1997) and encourage activity. As brain is working, gamma rays produced in areas of high activity and these are picked up by scanner. Areas of high activity may have a red colour while areas of low activity may have blue colour.
Strengths
* May predict what kind of issues patients may face in low brain activity areas.
* Useful In investigating brain areas which aren’t functioning properly.
* Compare functions between normal and abnormal brains so can identify causes of differences in behaviours.
* Produce quantitative data which is reliable.
* Used in research such as Raine et al (1997) where PET scans were used to investigate brain activity of murderers and control group of non-murderers
Weaknesses
* Scans more invasive as patient may be injected with radioactive substance, but carries low risk due to very low levels of substance, unclear long-term effects may reduce use of PET.
* Carried out in controlled setting so cannot show how brain responds in real - life situations, therefore low in predictive validity.
* Involve use of unrealistic tasks so results are low in ecological validity.

Question 40

Describe and Evaluate
fMRI functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Answer 40

Designed in 1990’s to enable images of brain activity to be gathered without the use of radiation, the idea behind it, is that brain activity may be associated with blood flow in the brain and activity is used to produce a picture.
Having your head be placed inside functional electromagnet. Inside magnetic field, the nuclei within hydrogen molecules in water align with direction of magnetic field. As neural activity increases in the brain, blood flow increases in the active areas to keep up with demand for oxygen. Oxygen is carried to neurons in haemoglobin within red blood cells. Haemoglobin, when carrying oxygen, repels magnetic field (diamagnetic) and, when deoxygenated, it will follow direction of magnetic field (paramagnetic), these changes will be detected to create an image. Scanner sends information to computer that creates map of activation of changing levels of neural activity in different brain areas as tasks are being completed.
* High comparative safety compared to other scans such as PET scans which use radiations.
* Non-invasive and don’t use radiation risks of PET.
* Used in research such as Montag et al 2011, where fmri showed that gamers had lower levels of activity in reaction to pictures of negative emotion than control group did.
* Certain People may be unable to have these scans, such as people with pacemaker or surgical implants.
* Some people may be claustrophobic and uncomfortable with idea of being in machine, not suitable for all patients.

Question 41

Describe and Evaluate Electroencephalogram

Answer 41

Provides an overall view of brain electrical activity as a large no. of electrodes are placed over the surface of the skull. These pick up the activity of millions of neurones, by measuring the amplitude (size/intensity of electrical activity) and frequency (speed/rapidity of electrical activity). There are two distinctive states of the EEG: synchronised pattern where a recognised waveform can be identified and desynchronised pattern where there is NO recognisable waveform.
Strengths
Useful for identifying the general state of the brain (e.g., we can most commonly find synchronised patterns in our sleep)
* Advantage of the EEG/ERP technique is that it has good temporal resolution: it takes readings every millisecond, meaning it can record the brain’s activity in real time as opposed to looking at a passive brain. This leads to an accurate measurement of electrical activity when undertaking a specific task.
Weaknesses
However, it could be argued that EEG/ERP is uncomfortable for the participant, as electrodes are attached to the scalp. This could result in unrepresentative readings as the patient’s discomfort may be affecting cognitive responses to situations. fMRI scans, on the other hand, are less invasive and would not cause the participants any discomfort, leading to potentially more accurate recordings.
Does not relate to actual brain locations as clearly as scanning techniques do.

Question 42

Describe and Evaluate Twin Studies

Answer 42

Monozygotic/Identical twins share 100% of genes while dizygotic/Fraternal only share 50% of same genes.
When investigating twins, psychologists able to compare behaviour between group of identical and group of fraternal twins to see which group shared most similarity between each twin set.
Evaluation
Extent to which behaviour is same for twins is known as concordance rate, for example, Gottesman and Shields (1966) studied twins over a 16-year-period, where one had been diagnosed with schizophrenia, found that, in monozygotic twins, 42% of their co-twins was diagnosed with schizophrenia, while in dizygotic, was only 9% of co-twins diagnosed with same illness. Because concordance rate higher in Monozygotic then dizygotic twins In Gottesman and Shields, study concluded genetic element in developing schizophrenia.
If concordance rate was equally high/low for dizygotic twins for any behaviour, then researchers might assume that there’s no significant, genetic component at play and, in fact, experiential factors may have an effect, as twins are raised together and may share similar upbringing. Cocaro et al (1997) found in their study of 182 MZ twin pairs and 118 DZ pairs, that there was high chance of aggressive traits being found in both twins, suggesting that impulsive aggression could be due to genetic factors. They had their participants complete Buss-Durkee hostility inventory, 75 item questionnaire assessing various emotional traits associated with aggression and then compared to each member of twin pair, was found that a significant concordance rate was shown between twins for measures such as indirect assault, suggesting heritability role in some features of aggression.

Question 43

Describe and Evaluate adoption studies

Answer 43

Best method to allow psychologists to measure whether behaviour is result of nature or nurture. Groups of adoptees are studied and behaviour is correlated with adopted and natural families. Adoptees share no genetic material with adopted families but have shared environment throughout upbringing, however adoptees share 50% of genes with each biological parent, but haven’t lived with them for majority of their life. If behaviour of adoptees correlated more strongly with biological family then adoptive, could be concluded behaviour involves biological component.

Cadoret and Stewart (1991) suggested that adopted boys were at increased risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity and aggression as children if they had biological parent who’d been convicted of crime in adulthood. Found that boys were more likely to be aggressive or have a diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity if there were psychiatric problems in member of adoptive family. Suggests that behaviour as complex as aggression can have variety of causes which can’t be attributed to nature or nurture.

Question 44

Evaluate twin studies and adoption studies

Answer 44

Overall evaluation: Many possible problems with twin and adoption studies, main aim investigates biological causes of behaviour, but difficult to separate nature completely from nurture. It may be rare for child to be adopted by a family immediately from birth so an adoptee may have spent time living with biological family or in foster care before adoption, possible confounding variables may affect validity of findings. Almost all twins will be raised together so may be problematic to assume that, because monozygotic twins show higher concordance for behaviour than DZ twins, must be genetic. Limited sample size limits generalisability. It’s not easy to recruit a large and diverse group of MZ and DZ twins, or adoptees and their parents, reducing generalisability. Adoption studies may cause the problem of children who are being adopted tend to be placed in families that closely affect family background they came from, may be unreliable to assume that any similarities of adoptee and biological family are result of nature because similarity may be due to similar live events/experiences (Nurture).

Question 45

Evaluate twin studies and adoption studies

Answer 45

Overall evaluation: Many possible problems with twin and adoption studies, main aim investigates biological causes of behaviour, but difficult to separate nature completely from nurture. It may be rare for child to be adopted by a family immediately from birth so an adoptee may have spent time living with biological family or in foster care before adoption, possible confounding variables may affect validity of findings. Almost all twins will be raised together so may be problematic to assume that, because monozygotic twins show higher concordance for behaviour than DZ twins, must be genetic. Limited sample size limits generalisability. It’s not easy to recruit a large and diverse group of MZ and DZ twins, or adoptees and their parents, reducing generalisability. Adoption studies may cause the problem of children who are being adopted tend to be placed in families that closely affect family background they came from, may be unreliable to assume that any similarities of adoptee and biological family are result of nature because similarity may be due to similar live events/experiences (Nurture).

Question 46

Describe Biological Practical

Answer 46

The aim of this correlational study is to investigate if little man syndrome exists and there is a relationship between height and aggression.
Sample This correlational study used an opportunity sample of 18 psychology students in SCA Sixth form, which is in Smethwick
Co-variables (operationalise them)
1. Height measured in cm
Aggression scored generated from the Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ)
Standardised procedure
2. Complete the BPAQ online using their own laptop
Add all 4 aggression scores to give an overall score for aggression
Measured height in cm using a metre stick
Standardised instructions
3. Answer the online questionnaire honestly
Remove shoes before being measured
To control ppt variables I carried out the study in the morning so students were not tired. I ensured all ppts took their shoes off so heels did not make a difference to their height.

To control situational variables I carried out the study in the morning to get more accurate heights.

Findings:
The Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire generated 4 types of aggression. They were:
* Physical aggression
* Verbal aggression
* Hostility
* Anger

Table of raw data for height and aggression scores (DON’T NEED TO MEMORISE)
Inferential statistical test:
1. Test of relationship
Intervals (results are fixed measurements)
Independent groups design
Sum of difference squared = 572
1 – 0.59 = 0.41
Correlational co-efficient = 0.41 Critical values = 0.401

Concluded that there’s no correlation between aggression scores and height. Null hypothesis accepted

Question 47

Evaluate Biological Practical

Answer 47

Evaluation
Strengths
Research had standardised procedure allowing for it to be replicated and re-tested so results can be proved to have reliability.
Controlled participant and situational variables so that results regarding aggression and height may have high validify and causal relationship.
Conclusions may be applicable as it can suggest that height stereotypes should not be used in suspect identification and in prosecution of suspects, can lower stereotypical nature of justice system.

Limitations
Sample is unrepresentative and small, only included 18 psychology students from Smethwick, results cannot be generalised to students who do other subjects, live in other areas, and go to other schools, to make sample more representative and results more generalisable sample should be recruited of participants from different areas, people from different areas, who do different subjects, and even people of different age groups and educational levels, such as school dropouts or university students.
Opportunity sample may be limited due to fact participants may show demand characteristics, they may show interest in research area and want to appease to experimenter beliefs/suggestions, lowers validity of results regarding height and aggression, this can be improved by using different sampling method such as stratified sampling to reduce chance of all ppts being interested in area of research and showing bias and demand characteristics, as well as increasing generalisability of results regarding height and aggression.
Social desirability bias may occur as participants may be aware of stereotypes such as little-man syndrome and may want to disassociate themselves from this, especially with participants who are short and may not want to be labelled as aggressive, which can lower validity of results, to resolve this, participants can be told fake aim, like investigating effect of height on speed of completing questionnaire on random topic, as this reduces chance of participants lying about their aggression.