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BIOL122 Flashcards

1
Q

Order the 6 levels of organisation

A

1)chemical
2)cellular
3)Tissue
4)organ
5)organ system
6)organismal

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2
Q

What is transdifferentiation

A

Process of converting one mature cell type to another without going through a pluripotent cell

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3
Q

What are the 11 body systems

A

1) Integument
2) Skeletal
3)Muscular
4)Cardiovascular
5)Lymphatic and immune
6)Endocrine
7)Nervous
8)Respiratory
9)Digestive
10)Urinary
11)Reproductive

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4
Q

What is the integumentary system

A

(exterior stuff) e.g skin, hair nails, sweat and oil glands

It protects us, detects sensation and eliminates some waste (water/ions/urea in sweat)
Produces vitamin D component (completed in kidney)

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5
Q

What is the skeletal system

A

Bones, joints and cartilage

Supports and protects, attatches muscles, houses blood cell producing cells and stores minerals +lipids

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6
Q

what is the Muscular system

A

ONLY skeletal muscle

movement
posture stabilisation
heat generation

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7
Q

what is the Cardiovascular system

A

Blood, heart, blood vessels

Transport, temp regulation, water content regulation, disease defence, tissue repair

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8
Q

what is the Lymphatic/immune system

A

lymph fluid, lymph vessels and nodes, bone marrow, spleen, thymus, tonsils

Returns proteins and fluid to blood, carries lipids from GI tract to blood, protects against diseases and cancer

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9
Q

What is the Endocrine system

A

Hormone-producing glands

co-ordinates body functions
releases hormones

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10
Q

What is the nervous system

A

brain, spinal chord, nerves, sense organes (eyes and ears)

Generates nerve impulses to regulate body activity
detects stimuli and responds
Initiates muscle contraction or gland secretion
Monitor internal environment e.g baro and chemoreceptors in aorta

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11
Q

What is the respiratory system

A

lungs, airways, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchioles, alveoli

Gas exchange, regulates body fluid pH, speach via vocal chords

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12
Q

What is the digestive system

A

GI tract: Mouth, pharynx oesophagus, stomach, intestines
Accessory oragns: salivory gland, gall bladder, liver, pancreas

breaks down and absorbs food, removes solid waste

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13
Q

What is the urinary system

A

Kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra

Makes stores and releases urine, Eliminates waste, regulates blood, maintains body fluid pH, regulates red blood cell production

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14
Q

What is the reproductive system

A

Males: testes, epididymus, vas deferens, penis
Females: Ovaris, uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina

Gamete production and hormone release (regulates puberty) and reproduction

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15
Q

Name the type of secretion types in order of least to most damaging

A

1) Merocrine
2) Apocrine
3) Holocrine

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16
Q

What is merocrine secretion

A

Secretion released via golgi vesicles (not very damaging)

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17
Q

What is apocrine secretion

A

Portion of the cell is released alongside organelles and secretory product

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18
Q

What is holocrine secretion

A

A mature cell dying and the whole cell becomes the secretory product

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19
Q

What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine

A

Endocrine remains inside the body (released into blood or similar)
Exocrine is released out of the body through a duct

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20
Q

What is the difference between simple and compound multicellular glands and

A

The DUCT (external cells) branch in compound glands.
The glands may branch in simple but the duct will only branch in compound glands

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21
Q

What are some functions of connecitve tissues

A

Supporting other tissues,
Protecting internal organs
compartmentalises (like the eye)
Transport (blood)
Immunity
Energy storage (adipose)

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22
Q

What types of connective tissue are there

A

Loose, Dense, Cartilage, Bone, Blood

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23
Q

What is Areolar tissue

A

Surrounds blood vessels and nerves (lots of space between collagen fibres) and contains lots of fibroblasts

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24
Q

What is adipose tissue

A

Fat store that can act as a shock absorber and thermal insulator

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25
Q

What is reticular tissue

A

Interwoven reticular fibres making the supporting framework in reticular organs

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26
Q

What is dense connective tissue

A

Regular: packed parallel collagen fibres found where tension is exerted along axis of fibres
Irregular: Tension in different planes (irregular collogen)
Elastic: recoils easily (artery walls)

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27
Q

What is cartilage

A

Hyaline: Found at end of bones
Found in joints (articular) for low friction
Elastic: flexible with more elastin (found in ear)
Fibrocartilage: Parallel collagen fibres making strong and rigid structure (invertebral discs)

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28
Q

What is bone

A

Lots of collagen fibres with inorganic calcium salt matrix
Stores fat and synthesises blood in marrow

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29
Q

Name the components of a homeostatic system

A

Receptor, control centre, effector and negative feedback

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30
Q

What proportions of body weight is water in Newborns (neonatal), Male and Female

A

Neonatal: 80%
Male: 60%
Female: 50%

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31
Q

What proportions of body fluids are in a human with 40 litres of fluid

A

3L of plasma
12L of interstitial luid
25L of intercellular fluid

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32
Q

What is osmolality

A

The number of particles that have an osmotic effect

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33
Q

What are the components of the urinary system

A

Kidneys, ureters, blader and urethra

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34
Q

What are the terms for entry and exit in the kidneys

A

efferent (entry) and afferent (exit)

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35
Q

How small do proteins have to be to leave the blood in the glomerelus

A

<65KD

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36
Q

What layers of the glomerrelus prevent what molecules passing

A

All plasma passes through the glomerular endothelial cell
Large proteins are blocked by the basal lamina
Medium proteins held back by the slit membrane between pedicels

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37
Q

How much is reabsored in the proximal convoluted tubule

A

Water 65%
Na+ 65%
Glucose 100% (up to 10mmol/L)
Amino acids 100%
Cl- 50%
HCO3 80-90%

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38
Q

What substances can be secreted into the fluid in the proximal convoluted tubule

A

H+
NH4+
Urea

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39
Q

What is reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule

A

Na+ ions - 5% (increased by aldosterone for more water absorption)
water 10-15%
Cl- 5% (to remain electroneutral)

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40
Q

What is secreted into the tubular fluid in the distal convoluted tubule

A

H+
K+
NH4+
Urea

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41
Q

What is reabsorbed in the collecting duct

A

Water (due to ADH inserting aquaporin 2)
Na+
Urea

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42
Q

What is secreted in the collecting duct

A

K+
H+ (to adjust blood pH)

43
Q

Whats the difference between Cortical nephrons and Juxtamedullary nephrons and what proportions are they in

A

Cortical are shorter and don’t extend their loop of henle far into the medulla (80-85%)
Juxtamedullary nephrons have loops of henle that extend deep into the medulla
(15-20%)

44
Q

What symptoms result from dehydration

A

Weight loss
thirst
light headedness
kidney failiure

45
Q

What symtoms result from overhydration

A

Digestive problems (anorexia, nausea)
Behavioural changes (LOC changes, confusion, headaches)
Seizures
Coma
Respiratory issues (pulmonary congestion)

46
Q

Describe the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

A

Drop in blood pressure
Renin released
Renin makes angiotensinogen to angiotensin 1
ACE from lungs conversts angiotensin 1 to 2
Angiotensin 2 stimulates adrenal gland to produce aldosterone (and also causes blood vessels to constrict)
Aldosterone stiumlates absorption of salt and water

47
Q

How does the body deal with overhydration

A

Shuts off ADH production
Produces ANP
Natriuresis (loss of Na+ and Cl- to absorb less water in urine)

48
Q

Name functions of the liver

A

Phagocytosis
Bile salt and serum protein synthesis
Haem excretion
Drug and hormone production
Partial Vitamin D activation
Storage (e.g glycogen and vitmain A)
Metabolism

49
Q

Where is the liver in relation to other organs

A

Under the diaphragm

50
Q

what are sinusoids

A

large, irregular blood capillaries found in the liver that are use to transfer proteins between blood and tissues. Each hapatocyte is in contact with at least 1 sinusoid

51
Q

What are bial canaliculi

A

Ducts that allow for the removal of bile from hepatocytes

52
Q

What are kupffer cells

A

They are macrophages that act as an immune response and also get rid of old red blood cells (hemostasis)

53
Q

What are the functions of bile salts

A

They emulsify fats
Allow pancreatic lipase to break down fats easily
Aids absorption of lipids

54
Q

How is haemoglobin broken down

A

Red blood cells broken down by heme oxygenase and bilidervin reductase to make unconjugated bilirubin
This is then transported by albumin to the livid and is acted on by glucuronyl-bilirubin transferase to make it conjugated
This is then moved in bile to the intestine and metabolised to urobilnogen which is either further metabolised to stercobilin or lost in urine

55
Q

What is glycogenesis and glycogenolysis

A

Glycogenesis is the response to eating food and is glucose to glycogen
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in absence of food

56
Q

What hormone does glucagon work alongside to promote glycogen to glucose

A

Adrenaline

57
Q

What is the pathway from glyucose to glycogen

A

Glucose via hexokinase and atp is converted to glucose 6-phosphate
G6P to G1P (shortened)
UTP converts G1P to Uridine diphosphate which is converted to glycogen

58
Q

What is the pathway from glycogen to glucose

A

Glycogen to Glucose 1-phosphate via phosphorylase
G1P to G6P
G6P by phosphase to glucose

59
Q

What is gluconeogenesis

A

Formation of new glucose stimulated by cortisol + glucagon from lactic acid + amino acids (anaerobic) or glycerol from triglycerides

60
Q

What is lipogenesis and lipolysis

A

Lipogenesis is the formation of glycerol and fatty acids from glucose and amino acids stimulated by insulin
Lipolysis is the promotion of several types of lipids ultimately to ketone bodies which are used in the krebs cycle to produce ATP

61
Q

What is catabolism (for energy production)

A

Amino acids converted to glucose, fatty acids and ketone bodies to be used to produce energy

62
Q

What makes up the blood plasma

A

7% proteins - (Albumins (54%), Globulins (38%), Fibrinogen (7%))
Water 91.5%
Solutes 1.5%

63
Q

What makes up the rest of blood (excluding plasma)

A

Platelets (150k-400k)
White blood cells (5k-10k)
Made up of Neutrophils (60-70%), Lymphocytes (20-25%), monocytes (3-8%), Eosinophils (2-4%), Basophils (0.5-1%)
and red blood cells 4.8-5.4 mil

64
Q

What is haemopoiesis

A

The production of blood cells

65
Q

Name the 3 granulocytes

A

Nautrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils

66
Q

Name the 2 agranulocytes

A

Lymphocytes (T and B)
Monocytes

67
Q

How are platelets formed

A

Megakaryocyte cytoplasm pinched off produces platelets

68
Q

Name the 3 stages of haemostasis (stop bleeding)

A

1) Vascular spasm
2) Platelet Plug
3) Blood clot formation

69
Q

How do you calculate the filtration pressure and what does it mean

A

NET FP = Net hydrostatic pressue - Net osmotic pressure
If Filtration pressure is postive fluid moves from blood to tissue fluid and if negative it moves from tissue fluid to blood

70
Q

What would the filtration pressure be at the arterial end and venous end

A

Arterial end is positive FP
Venous end is Negative FP

71
Q

What is another name for skeletal muscle and why is it called this?

A

Voulentary muscle because it is under concious control and not all of it is connected to the skeleton (e.g tongue)

72
Q

What are functions of skeletal muscle

A

Movement
Posture
Soft tissue support
Opening and exit control
Temperature control
Nutrient reserve

73
Q

Name the layers of the skeltal muscle from the internal most structure to external

A

Muscle fibre
Fascicle (wrapped in perimysium)
Epimysium

74
Q

Why are muscle cells multinucleate

A

Because several myoblast cells fuse in development to form the muscle fiber retaining all the nuclei

75
Q

Why are skeletal muscles striated

A

They appear striped because the sarcomeres are all aligned

76
Q

How are muscle fibers organised

A

They contain many myofibrils whoch are comprised of many myofilaments arranged into sarcomeres

77
Q

How does the wave of depolarisation travel through the myofibrils

A

Action potential travels through the sarcolema and through T-tubules to reach deep into the myofibril

78
Q

Name the different bands and lines of the sarcomere

A

M-line Attatches thick filaments togehter
A band (both)
I band (actin only)
H band (myosin only)
Z line (joins sarcomeres together)
Zone of overlap (self explanitory)

79
Q

What prevents the sarcomere from over-extending)

A

Titin on the end of the myosin molecule

80
Q

What do calcium ions (Ca2+) bind to to expose the myosin binding site on actin

A

It binds to troponin causing tropomyosin to move exposing the binding sites

81
Q

What is it called when a myosin head binds to actin

A

Crossbridge formation

82
Q

How is calcium added to and removed form the cytosol

A

It enters through voltage mediated calcium ion channels and exits through calcium ion pumps (ATP used)

83
Q

What are the 3 small bones behind the eardrum

A

The malleus, incus and stapes

84
Q

Describe the path of sound travel through the ear

A

Vibrates the eardrum which is passed through the malleus, incus and stepes through the oval window into the cochlea where it moves through the vestibular canal into the tympanic canal and is dissapated at the round window

85
Q

What are the 3 sections of cochlea

A

Vestibular canal, tympanic canal (both filled with perilymph) and cochlear duct (which contains the organ of corti and is connected to the auditory nerve) filled with endolympth which has more K+ conc

86
Q

Describe the basilar membrane and its function

A

The basilar membrane has different lengths of fibres which correleate to different resonant frequencies and stimulate hair cell’s stereocillia against tectorial membranes at certain points that correspond to certain frequencies to pass a signal along the auditory nerve as the hair cell is depolarised.

87
Q

How do the semicircle canals manage balance and orientation

A

Gravity moves otoliths which move sterocillia in the otoliths causing channels to open and depolaristion of hair cells passing a signal to the vestibular branch of vestibocochlear nerve
The same happens in the cupula when you are rotating

88
Q

What type of bone cells are there

A

Osteoclasts (causes reabsorption of bone)
Osteoblasts (synthesises extrecellular matrix that is bone)
Osteocytes

89
Q

What is osteoperosis?

A

Osteoblasts dont fully repair bone after it is reabosrbed by osteoclasts causing reduced bone density

90
Q

What is the heirarchy of energy store breakdown

A

glycogen
lipids
proteins (severe starvation)

91
Q

Why do contact lenses need to be removed at night

A

The cornea need oxygen from the atmosphere to function properly

92
Q

Describe what muscles change the size of the pupil in the iris and how

A

It contracts circular muscles to constrict the pupil and contracts the radial muscle of the iris to dilate

93
Q

What did the innsbruck goggle experiment prove

A

That the brain processes any image recieved from the eye and corrects it (makes it the right way up)

94
Q

What is rhodopsin composed of and how does it break down

A

cis-Retinal and opsin
It breaks down due to light converting it into trans-retinal which cant bind to opsin
(retinal isomerase converts it back when its dark)

95
Q

How does rhodopsin breakdown transmit an action potential

A

it opens sodium ion channels in the rod cell which passes glutamate to the biolar cell

96
Q

What are functions of the skin?

A

Protection (injury, infection, UV)
Regulation (temperature, water and waste removal)
Sensing
Production (vitamin D, Nitric oxide)

97
Q

What are the layers of the skin

A

Epidermis (comprised of keratinocytes)
Papillary dermis (fibroblasts)
Reticular dermis (fibroblasts)
Hypodermis (not really skin but fat that connects skin to bones and muscle
There are also various glands and folicles in the skin

98
Q

What is the difference between the thin skin that covers most of the body and the thick skin (palm and sole)

A

Thick skin has more sensory receptors and larger stratum corneum and has a layer called stratum lucidum that thin skin doesn’t
Thick skin also doesn’t have hair follicles or sebaceous glands or arrector pili muscles

99
Q

What type of cells are in the epidermis

A

Keratinocytes (90%)
Melanocytes (8%)
Langerhans cell (recognise and process microbial invaders)
Merkel cells (sensory)

100
Q

What is the dermis comprised of

A

Mostly collagen and elastic fibres
Fibroblasts
mast cells
phagocytes
blood vessels
adipocytes
Found between the epidermis and hypodermis

101
Q

what is the papillary dermis comprised of

A

Areolar connective tissue
Collagen and elastic fibres
Dermal papillae which contain capillary loops and nerve endings

102
Q

What is reticular dermis comprised of

A

Irregular dense connective tissue
Ticker collagen/elastin fibres
Epidermal appendages
nerve endings
Most of the skins strength in this layer

103
Q

What is a hair follicle comprised of

A

Hair shaft
Hair sheath
Hair bulge (contains stem cells used in the the sebaceous glands, keratinocytes and hair bulb)
Hair bulb
Dermal papilla

104
Q
A

BIOL (5 decks)

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