BIOL122 Flashcards
Order the 6 levels of organisation
1)chemical
2)cellular
3)Tissue
4)organ
5)organ system
6)organismal
What is transdifferentiation
Process of converting one mature cell type to another without going through a pluripotent cell
What are the 11 body systems
1) Integument
2) Skeletal
3)Muscular
4)Cardiovascular
5)Lymphatic and immune
6)Endocrine
7)Nervous
8)Respiratory
9)Digestive
10)Urinary
11)Reproductive
What is the integumentary system
(exterior stuff) e.g skin, hair nails, sweat and oil glands
It protects us, detects sensation and eliminates some waste (water/ions/urea in sweat)
Produces vitamin D component (completed in kidney)
What is the skeletal system
Bones, joints and cartilage
Supports and protects, attatches muscles, houses blood cell producing cells and stores minerals +lipids
what is the Muscular system
ONLY skeletal muscle
movement
posture stabilisation
heat generation
what is the Cardiovascular system
Blood, heart, blood vessels
Transport, temp regulation, water content regulation, disease defence, tissue repair
what is the Lymphatic/immune system
lymph fluid, lymph vessels and nodes, bone marrow, spleen, thymus, tonsils
Returns proteins and fluid to blood, carries lipids from GI tract to blood, protects against diseases and cancer
What is the Endocrine system
Hormone-producing glands
co-ordinates body functions
releases hormones
What is the nervous system
brain, spinal chord, nerves, sense organes (eyes and ears)
Generates nerve impulses to regulate body activity
detects stimuli and responds
Initiates muscle contraction or gland secretion
Monitor internal environment e.g baro and chemoreceptors in aorta
What is the respiratory system
lungs, airways, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchioles, alveoli
Gas exchange, regulates body fluid pH, speach via vocal chords
What is the digestive system
GI tract: Mouth, pharynx oesophagus, stomach, intestines
Accessory oragns: salivory gland, gall bladder, liver, pancreas
breaks down and absorbs food, removes solid waste
What is the urinary system
Kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra
Makes stores and releases urine, Eliminates waste, regulates blood, maintains body fluid pH, regulates red blood cell production
What is the reproductive system
Males: testes, epididymus, vas deferens, penis
Females: Ovaris, uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina
Gamete production and hormone release (regulates puberty) and reproduction
Name the type of secretion types in order of least to most damaging
1) Merocrine
2) Apocrine
3) Holocrine
What is merocrine secretion
Secretion released via golgi vesicles (not very damaging)
What is apocrine secretion
Portion of the cell is released alongside organelles and secretory product
What is holocrine secretion
A mature cell dying and the whole cell becomes the secretory product
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine
Endocrine remains inside the body (released into blood or similar)
Exocrine is released out of the body through a duct
What is the difference between simple and compound multicellular glands and
The DUCT (external cells) branch in compound glands.
The glands may branch in simple but the duct will only branch in compound glands
What are some functions of connecitve tissues
Supporting other tissues,
Protecting internal organs
compartmentalises (like the eye)
Transport (blood)
Immunity
Energy storage (adipose)
What types of connective tissue are there
Loose, Dense, Cartilage, Bone, Blood
What is Areolar tissue
Surrounds blood vessels and nerves (lots of space between collagen fibres) and contains lots of fibroblasts
What is adipose tissue
Fat store that can act as a shock absorber and thermal insulator
What is reticular tissue
Interwoven reticular fibres making the supporting framework in reticular organs
What is dense connective tissue
Regular: packed parallel collagen fibres found where tension is exerted along axis of fibres
Irregular: Tension in different planes (irregular collogen)
Elastic: recoils easily (artery walls)
What is cartilage
Hyaline: Found at end of bones
Found in joints (articular) for low friction
Elastic: flexible with more elastin (found in ear)
Fibrocartilage: Parallel collagen fibres making strong and rigid structure (invertebral discs)
What is bone
Lots of collagen fibres with inorganic calcium salt matrix
Stores fat and synthesises blood in marrow
Name the components of a homeostatic system
Receptor, control centre, effector and negative feedback
What proportions of body weight is water in Newborns (neonatal), Male and Female
Neonatal: 80%
Male: 60%
Female: 50%
What proportions of body fluids are in a human with 40 litres of fluid
3L of plasma
12L of interstitial luid
25L of intercellular fluid
What is osmolality
The number of particles that have an osmotic effect
What are the components of the urinary system
Kidneys, ureters, blader and urethra
What are the terms for entry and exit in the kidneys
efferent (entry) and afferent (exit)
How small do proteins have to be to leave the blood in the glomerelus
<65KD
What layers of the glomerrelus prevent what molecules passing
All plasma passes through the glomerular endothelial cell
Large proteins are blocked by the basal lamina
Medium proteins held back by the slit membrane between pedicels
How much is reabsored in the proximal convoluted tubule
Water 65%
Na+ 65%
Glucose 100% (up to 10mmol/L)
Amino acids 100%
Cl- 50%
HCO3 80-90%
What substances can be secreted into the fluid in the proximal convoluted tubule
H+
NH4+
Urea
What is reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule
Na+ ions - 5% (increased by aldosterone for more water absorption)
water 10-15%
Cl- 5% (to remain electroneutral)
What is secreted into the tubular fluid in the distal convoluted tubule
H+
K+
NH4+
Urea
What is reabsorbed in the collecting duct
Water (due to ADH inserting aquaporin 2)
Na+
Urea
What is secreted in the collecting duct
K+
H+ (to adjust blood pH)
Whats the difference between Cortical nephrons and Juxtamedullary nephrons and what proportions are they in
Cortical are shorter and don’t extend their loop of henle far into the medulla (80-85%)
Juxtamedullary nephrons have loops of henle that extend deep into the medulla
(15-20%)
What symptoms result from dehydration
Weight loss
thirst
light headedness
kidney failiure
What symtoms result from overhydration
Digestive problems (anorexia, nausea)
Behavioural changes (LOC changes, confusion, headaches)
Seizures
Coma
Respiratory issues (pulmonary congestion)
Describe the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Drop in blood pressure
Renin released
Renin makes angiotensinogen to angiotensin 1
ACE from lungs conversts angiotensin 1 to 2
Angiotensin 2 stimulates adrenal gland to produce aldosterone (and also causes blood vessels to constrict)
Aldosterone stiumlates absorption of salt and water
How does the body deal with overhydration
Shuts off ADH production
Produces ANP
Natriuresis (loss of Na+ and Cl- to absorb less water in urine)
Name functions of the liver
Phagocytosis
Bile salt and serum protein synthesis
Haem excretion
Drug and hormone production
Partial Vitamin D activation
Storage (e.g glycogen and vitmain A)
Metabolism
Where is the liver in relation to other organs
Under the diaphragm
what are sinusoids
large, irregular blood capillaries found in the liver that are use to transfer proteins between blood and tissues. Each hapatocyte is in contact with at least 1 sinusoid
What are bial canaliculi
Ducts that allow for the removal of bile from hepatocytes
What are kupffer cells
They are macrophages that act as an immune response and also get rid of old red blood cells (hemostasis)
What are the functions of bile salts
They emulsify fats
Allow pancreatic lipase to break down fats easily
Aids absorption of lipids
How is haemoglobin broken down
Red blood cells broken down by heme oxygenase and bilidervin reductase to make unconjugated bilirubin
This is then transported by albumin to the livid and is acted on by glucuronyl-bilirubin transferase to make it conjugated
This is then moved in bile to the intestine and metabolised to urobilnogen which is either further metabolised to stercobilin or lost in urine
What is glycogenesis and glycogenolysis
Glycogenesis is the response to eating food and is glucose to glycogen
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in absence of food
What hormone does glucagon work alongside to promote glycogen to glucose
Adrenaline
What is the pathway from glyucose to glycogen
Glucose via hexokinase and atp is converted to glucose 6-phosphate
G6P to G1P (shortened)
UTP converts G1P to Uridine diphosphate which is converted to glycogen
What is the pathway from glycogen to glucose
Glycogen to Glucose 1-phosphate via phosphorylase
G1P to G6P
G6P by phosphase to glucose
What is gluconeogenesis
Formation of new glucose stimulated by cortisol + glucagon from lactic acid + amino acids (anaerobic) or glycerol from triglycerides
What is lipogenesis and lipolysis
Lipogenesis is the formation of glycerol and fatty acids from glucose and amino acids stimulated by insulin
Lipolysis is the promotion of several types of lipids ultimately to ketone bodies which are used in the krebs cycle to produce ATP
What is catabolism (for energy production)
Amino acids converted to glucose, fatty acids and ketone bodies to be used to produce energy
What makes up the blood plasma
7% proteins - (Albumins (54%), Globulins (38%), Fibrinogen (7%))
Water 91.5%
Solutes 1.5%
What makes up the rest of blood (excluding plasma)
Platelets (150k-400k)
White blood cells (5k-10k)
Made up of Neutrophils (60-70%), Lymphocytes (20-25%), monocytes (3-8%), Eosinophils (2-4%), Basophils (0.5-1%)
and red blood cells 4.8-5.4 mil
What is haemopoiesis
The production of blood cells
Name the 3 granulocytes
Nautrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
Name the 2 agranulocytes
Lymphocytes (T and B)
Monocytes
How are platelets formed
Megakaryocyte cytoplasm pinched off produces platelets
Name the 3 stages of haemostasis (stop bleeding)
1) Vascular spasm
2) Platelet Plug
3) Blood clot formation
How do you calculate the filtration pressure and what does it mean
NET FP = Net hydrostatic pressue - Net osmotic pressure
If Filtration pressure is postive fluid moves from blood to tissue fluid and if negative it moves from tissue fluid to blood
What would the filtration pressure be at the arterial end and venous end
Arterial end is positive FP
Venous end is Negative FP
What is another name for skeletal muscle and why is it called this?
Voulentary muscle because it is under concious control and not all of it is connected to the skeleton (e.g tongue)
What are functions of skeletal muscle
Movement
Posture
Soft tissue support
Opening and exit control
Temperature control
Nutrient reserve
Name the layers of the skeltal muscle from the internal most structure to external
Muscle fibre
Fascicle (wrapped in perimysium)
Epimysium
Why are muscle cells multinucleate
Because several myoblast cells fuse in development to form the muscle fiber retaining all the nuclei
Why are skeletal muscles striated
They appear striped because the sarcomeres are all aligned
How are muscle fibers organised
They contain many myofibrils whoch are comprised of many myofilaments arranged into sarcomeres
How does the wave of depolarisation travel through the myofibrils
Action potential travels through the sarcolema and through T-tubules to reach deep into the myofibril
Name the different bands and lines of the sarcomere
M-line Attatches thick filaments togehter
A band (both)
I band (actin only)
H band (myosin only)
Z line (joins sarcomeres together)
Zone of overlap (self explanitory)
What prevents the sarcomere from over-extending)
Titin on the end of the myosin molecule
What do calcium ions (Ca2+) bind to to expose the myosin binding site on actin
It binds to troponin causing tropomyosin to move exposing the binding sites
What is it called when a myosin head binds to actin
Crossbridge formation
How is calcium added to and removed form the cytosol
It enters through voltage mediated calcium ion channels and exits through calcium ion pumps (ATP used)
What are the 3 small bones behind the eardrum
The malleus, incus and stapes
Describe the path of sound travel through the ear
Vibrates the eardrum which is passed through the malleus, incus and stepes through the oval window into the cochlea where it moves through the vestibular canal into the tympanic canal and is dissapated at the round window
What are the 3 sections of cochlea
Vestibular canal, tympanic canal (both filled with perilymph) and cochlear duct (which contains the organ of corti and is connected to the auditory nerve) filled with endolympth which has more K+ conc
Describe the basilar membrane and its function
The basilar membrane has different lengths of fibres which correleate to different resonant frequencies and stimulate hair cell’s stereocillia against tectorial membranes at certain points that correspond to certain frequencies to pass a signal along the auditory nerve as the hair cell is depolarised.
How do the semicircle canals manage balance and orientation
Gravity moves otoliths which move sterocillia in the otoliths causing channels to open and depolaristion of hair cells passing a signal to the vestibular branch of vestibocochlear nerve
The same happens in the cupula when you are rotating
What type of bone cells are there
Osteoclasts (causes reabsorption of bone)
Osteoblasts (synthesises extrecellular matrix that is bone)
Osteocytes
What is osteoperosis?
Osteoblasts dont fully repair bone after it is reabosrbed by osteoclasts causing reduced bone density
What is the heirarchy of energy store breakdown
glycogen
lipids
proteins (severe starvation)
Why do contact lenses need to be removed at night
The cornea need oxygen from the atmosphere to function properly
Describe what muscles change the size of the pupil in the iris and how
It contracts circular muscles to constrict the pupil and contracts the radial muscle of the iris to dilate
What did the innsbruck goggle experiment prove
That the brain processes any image recieved from the eye and corrects it (makes it the right way up)
What is rhodopsin composed of and how does it break down
cis-Retinal and opsin
It breaks down due to light converting it into trans-retinal which cant bind to opsin
(retinal isomerase converts it back when its dark)
How does rhodopsin breakdown transmit an action potential
it opens sodium ion channels in the rod cell which passes glutamate to the biolar cell
What are functions of the skin?
Protection (injury, infection, UV)
Regulation (temperature, water and waste removal)
Sensing
Production (vitamin D, Nitric oxide)
What are the layers of the skin
Epidermis (comprised of keratinocytes)
Papillary dermis (fibroblasts)
Reticular dermis (fibroblasts)
Hypodermis (not really skin but fat that connects skin to bones and muscle
There are also various glands and folicles in the skin
What is the difference between the thin skin that covers most of the body and the thick skin (palm and sole)
Thick skin has more sensory receptors and larger stratum corneum and has a layer called stratum lucidum that thin skin doesn’t
Thick skin also doesn’t have hair follicles or sebaceous glands or arrector pili muscles
What type of cells are in the epidermis
Keratinocytes (90%)
Melanocytes (8%)
Langerhans cell (recognise and process microbial invaders)
Merkel cells (sensory)
What is the dermis comprised of
Mostly collagen and elastic fibres
Fibroblasts
mast cells
phagocytes
blood vessels
adipocytes
Found between the epidermis and hypodermis
what is the papillary dermis comprised of
Areolar connective tissue
Collagen and elastic fibres
Dermal papillae which contain capillary loops and nerve endings
What is reticular dermis comprised of
Irregular dense connective tissue
Ticker collagen/elastin fibres
Epidermal appendages
nerve endings
Most of the skins strength in this layer
What is a hair follicle comprised of
Hair shaft
Hair sheath
Hair bulge (contains stem cells used in the the sebaceous glands, keratinocytes and hair bulb)
Hair bulb
Dermal papilla
