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BIOL 125 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex called and what do they do?

A

Frontal lobe - higher cognitive functions (descision making, problem solving, some language and movement)

Parietal lobe - integgrates visual pathway information and coordinates motor movement and sensory information

Temporal lobe - speech, hearing, object recognition and emotion

Occipital lobe - primary visual information

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2
Q

What are the subcortical regions of the brain?

A

The regions under the cortex with many functions.

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3
Q

What is the midbrain?

A

The connection between brainstem and subcortical regions.
Consists of:
Colliculi - directs eye movemennt
Tegmentum - cooridnates movement and alertness/slee
Cerebral peduncle - ocular muscle control

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4
Q

What are the sections of the spinal chord?

A

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal

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5
Q

What are the two main sections of the peripheral nervous system?

A

Somatic - voluntary

Autonomic - involuntary

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6
Q

What are the subgroups of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Enteric - movment of water and solutes between gut and tissues
Sympathetic - speeds up
parasympathetic - slows down

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7
Q

What are afferent and efferent pathways?

A

Afferent - carries sensory info from periphery to the brain (arriving)
Efferent - carries signals to the peripheral for mother output (exiting)

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8
Q

What are the two main cells of the CNS?

A

Neurons (nerve cells) and glia (support cells)

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9
Q

What types of glial cells are there?

A

microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and ependymal cells

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10
Q

What are microglia and what is their function?

A

Immune cells of the CNS and have an idle (surveillant) form and an active larger form

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11
Q

What are astrocytes and what is their function?

A

Star shaped cells that provide support for development and maintenence of nervous sustem and cerebral blood vessels.

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12
Q

What are oligodendrocytes and what is their function?

A

Also known as schwann cells (in the PNS) these cells form lipid rich myelin sheaths around certain neurons.

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13
Q

What is white and grey matter?

A

White matter is myelinated and grey is unmyelinated.

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14
Q

How does the brain stop blood from reaching it?

A

there are tight junction proteins in the endothelial cells of the brain creating a barrier between the blood and the brain (blood-brain barrier)

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15
Q

What is the cerebrospinal fluid?

A

It is the fluid contain in the ventricles and subarachnoid spaces of brain and spinal chord.

It provied buoyancy and cushioning to the brain

It is produced from filtered blood by the choroid plexus

It is shared between the spinal chord and brain and so can be used to provide a ‘snapshot’ of brain conditions.

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16
Q

What are the differences to ionotropic receptors and metabolic receptors?

A

Ionotropic receptors - Transmitter binding triggers direct opening of ion channels
They are always stimulatory and are fast

Metabolic receptors - transmitter binding indirectly activates G-proteins.
Can also trigger opening and closing of ion channels and downstream signalling cascades
They are slow and take hours

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17
Q

What is the structure of ionotropic receptors?

A

They are composed of 4/5 subunits around a central pore.

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18
Q

What is the structure of metabolic receptors?

A

A single protein with 7 membrane spanning regions.

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19
Q

What are the 4 major groups of neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholine

Biogenic amines

Amino acids

Peptides

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20
Q

What enzymes break down and synthesise acetylcholine?

A

It is broken down by Acetylcholinesterase (in the synaptic cleft) and sythesised by Choline acetyl transferase (in the presynaptic cell)

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21
Q

What are the two types of acetylcholine receptors and what are their agonists and antagonists?

A

Nicotinic (neuromuscular junction, brain and autonomic nerves) and muscarinic (smooth muscle, exocrine glands, brain)

Nicotinic agonist: nicotine
Antagonist: Curare

Muscarinic agonist: muscarine
antagonist: Atropine

22
Q

How is alzheimers disease treated?

A

Using acetylcholinesterase inhibitors to try and maintian acetylcholine levels in the brain

23
Q

How are catecholamines synthesised?

A

Synthesised from tyrosine from the blood involving enzymes MAO and COMT

24
Q

What causes parkinsons disease?

A

Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and loss of dopamine in the caudate-putamen with more than 50% dopamine depletion

25
How is parkinsons disease treated?
Using L-dopa to replenish dopamine levels in the brain alongside a peripherally active dopa decarboxylase inhibitor to prevent L-dopa converting outside of the brain. COMPT and MAO-B can also be administered to inhibit degredation of dopamine levels.
26
How is serotonin synthesised and broken down?
Synthesised from tryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase and 5-hydroxytryptophan decarboxylase Broken down to 5-hydroxyindoleic acid by MAO and aldehyde dehydrogenase
27
How does serotonin signalling work?
5-HT cab bind to 14 receptors (13 of which are G-protein-coupled) and 5-HT3 which is a ligand-gated ion channel. Can be exitatory or inhibitory Action terminated by reuptakevia 5-HT transorted on presynaptic neuron
28
What are the 4 amino acids transmitters?
Glutamate, aspartate (exitatory) Glycine and GABA (inhibitory)
29
What can serotonin reuptake inhibitors treat?
Symptoms of depression, anxiety, OCD, PTSD and other mental conditions
30
How do GABA receptors act as an inbitor?
It is couples to Cl- channels and alters membrane potential to make it harder to generate an action potential.
31
What are the 3 glutamate receptors?
NMDA receptors Kainate and AMPA receptors mGluRs (G-protein coupled receptors)
32
How do astrocytes buffer glutamate and GABA concentrations?
Glutamate is removed from the synapse by astroycte vis exitatory animo acid transporters Gaba is taken up by GABA transporters Both are catabolysed to glutamine in the astrocyte for reuse.
33
What treatments target GABA and glutamate signalling?
Memantine blocks Mg2+ binding sites on glutamate NMDA receptor to treat Alzheimer's GABA receptor agonists are given for epilepsy seizure treatment
34
Where are peptide neurotransmitters found commonly?
In the hypothalamus.
35
What are other neutrotransmitters outside the 4 main groups?
Purines, Histamine and gases (Nitric oxide)
36
Name all the sphincters in the GI tract
upper and lower esophageal sphincter Pyloric sphincter ileocecal sphincter anal sphincters
37
What are the 4 layers for the general structure of the GI tract?
1) Mucosa 2) Submucosa 3) Muscularis 4) Serosa Also nerve plexus which spreads through the layers
38
What types of epithelial cells are in the mucous membrane?
absorptive cells, exocrine cells, goblet cells and endocrine cells
39
What functions does saliva have and where is it produced?
By salivary glands (parotid, sublingual and submandibular) Begins digestion (salivary aplha-amylase and lingual lipase) lubrication buffering and dilution antibiotic Helps taste Cleans teeth and aids tooth repair
40
What are the functions of the stomach?
Produced HCL from parietal cells and secretes pepsinogen from cheif cells Mucu and gastric lipase also secreted Rennin coagulates milk Can expand from 50ml to 1-2 litres
41
What are zymogens/pro-enzymes and why are they important?
They are inactive enzymes that require a biochemical change to activate This stops them from digesting the cells that produce them and therefore protects those cells.
42
How is pepsinogen activated?
It is activated when it encounters HCl in the stomach
43
What are the functions of the small intestine?
It is where most digestion and absorption takes place. Recieves chyme from stomach, enzymes from pancreas and bile from liver and gallbladder Contained crypts of lieberkuhn which secrete bicarbonate rich fluid to neutralise chyme
44
What are the functions of the colon?
Has crypts of lieberkuhn but no villi as only water and some fats are absorbed there. It is the principle location of commensal microflora
45
What are acinar cells in the pancreas?
They make digestive enzymes and bicarbonate (neutralises stomach acid)
46
What types of islets of langerhan are in the pancreas?
Aplha cells - make glucagon Beta cells - make insulin delta cells - make somatostatin (regulates digestion, absorption and other hormone release)
47
Where are monosaccarides, amino acids and fats absorbed and how?
Monosaccarides and amino acids are absorbed in small intestine then into the capillaries before being transported to the liver Fats are emulsified via bile salt and digested by pancreatic lipase. The long chain resulting fatty acids are converted to chylomicrons and absorbed into the lymphatic system some short-chain fatty acids are absorbed into blood directly
48
Why is the microbiota important?
The bacteria in our gut influence digestion and nutrient absorbtion.
49
Where does the thoracic duct in the lymph system drain?
It drains into the left subclavian vein
50
How do nutrients enter and exit the liver?
They travel through mesentric veins and enter through the hepatic portal vein they leave through the hepatic vein Bile stalts are recirculated
51

BIOL (14 decks)

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