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BIOL > BIOL112 > Flashcards

BIOL112 Flashcards

1
Q

How big are eukaryotes

A

5-100 micrometres

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2
Q

How do archea function at extreme conditions

A

They have specific adaptations to withstand temperature stresses such as temperature resistant enzymes

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3
Q

What are extremophiles useful for

A

1)PCR
2)Biofuels
3)Biomining
4)Carotenoid production
5)Detergents

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4
Q

How does prokaryotic flagella function

A

ATP is used to pump hydrogen ions through the motor turning the flagellum (like atp synthase but active)

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5
Q

Whats the difference between gram postive and gram negative

A

Poistive has thick peptidoglycan wherease neative has thin
Positive has simple cell wall and negative has complex double layer
Positive has teichoic acids and negative has lipopolysaccharides

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6
Q

Uses of bacteria

A

Medical: e.g insulin production and drug screening
Agricultural: introducing new genes to plants
Environmental: removing pollutants
Industrial: lactic bacteria develops flavour and others can improve storage length of wine

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7
Q

what modes of nutrition are there

A

Photo/chemo autotrophs

Photo/chemo heterotrophs

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8
Q

What shapes of viruses are there

A

Filamenous (long)
Spheroid (capsomere)
Enveloped (membrane envelope)
Tailed spheroid (bacteriopahge)

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9
Q

What are some uses of microscopy

A

Frequency of cell types in a sample, Host-pathogen interaction, Abundance of proteins after stimulation, colocalisation of proteins, localisation of proteins or microbes in cells

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10
Q

Name 6 types of microscopy

A

Brightfield (stained and unstained)
Flourescence
Phase-contrast
ifferential-interference-contrast
conofocal (optical sectioning)

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11
Q

Ways to get better images in light microscopes

A

Deconvulation (algorithms remove out of focus light to sharpen image)
Super resolution (gets light from individual florescent molecules recording their position (breaks resolution limit)

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12
Q

How to electron microscopes maginify

A

Using magnetic objectve and projective lenses

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13
Q

How do you keep cell samples flat and not wrinkled in an EM microscope

A

using a copper grid

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14
Q

How do you see a protein with an electron microscope

A

using cryoTEM

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15
Q

What are samples in SEM coated with

A

Gold to protect from electron beam damage

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16
Q

What is cell fractionation used for

A

Protein enrichment/characterization/translocation

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17
Q

How does the cell break down its own cell debris

A

using lysosomes

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18
Q

What are the holes in plant membranes and walls called and what do they do

A

Plasmodesmata and they are used for exchange and communication between plant cells

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19
Q

How do people think the mitochondira come about in eukaryotes

A

Via endoymbiosis (prokaryote absorbing aerobic bacterium)

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20
Q

What enzymes are responsible for flip-flopping in cell membranes

A

flippase and floppase

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21
Q

How does cholesterol affect fluidity

A

At low temperature it increases the distance between phopsholipids increasing fluidity but in high temperature it does the opposite

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22
Q

What is the lipid bilayer to membrane proteins

A

A solvent

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23
Q

Why is freeze-fracture EM used

A

to split the membrane under pressure to show that the inside and outside layer of the membrane are different

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24
Q

What is the glycocalyx

A

a thin layer of carbohydrate present on the plasma membrane with a varitey of functions such as absorption and protection

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25
Q

How could removing CCR5 stop HIV infections

A

prevents the HIV virus from attatching to these receptors and entering the cells

26
Q

How are eithelial cells fastened together

A

By desmosome junctions to withstand stresses and strains

27
Q

What does the epithelium protect against

A

Mechanicla injury, microbes and fluid loss

28
Q

What types of epithelium are there

A

Simple (single layer), stratified (multi layer)
and they can have different shapes
Cuboidal and columnar

29
Q

What types of connective tissue are there

A

Dense (bone ect) and loose (holds glands and epithelia together)

30
Q

What types of vertebrate muscle are there

A

Skeletal (voluntary movement)
Smooth (involuntary movement)
Cardiac (same as smooth but has intercalated disc for electrical signals in heart)

31
Q

What cells are responsible for nourishing, insulating and replenishing neurons

A

Glilial cells (gila)

32
Q

What is the smooth edoplasmic reticulum and what does it do?

A

It produces phospholipids, fat and steroids and metabolises carbohydrates
In hepatocytes it breaks down glycogen into glucose
It detoxifies lipid soluble drugs

33
Q

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

A network of tubular sacs in muscle cells that stores and regulates calcium ions (controls contraction) and electrical signals
They surround myofibrils like a membrane

34
Q

What are the Z, H, A and I lines?

A

Z - Dark lines between actin and myosin filaments
H - Middle bit with only myosin that shortens in contraction
A - Length of total myosin
I - length of actin including Z line

35
Q

How do calcium ions expose myosin binding site on the actin

A

They attatch to the tropomyosin complex changing the shape of the tropomyosin

36
Q

Describe actin-mysoin interactions

A

Myosin head binds to atp and moves into a high energy configuration
When it binds to an exposed actin binding site it moves back to its low energy configuration releasing adp + pi and dragging the actin along it then unbinds and repeats

37
Q

What classes of protein synthesis take place in the RER

A

Secreted proteins
Glycosylated proteins
Lysosomal enzymes
Membrane bound proteins

38
Q

What do signal peptides do

A

They attatch to a signal-recognition particle (SRP) which binds to a translocation complex on the RER binding the ribosome to the RER and released the protein produced into the RER for packaging

39
Q

What are polyribosomes

A

An mRNA molecule that is being simultaneously translated by multiple ribosomes (common)

40
Q

What side of the golgi accepts the ER transport vesicles and which releases it

A

Recieves on the cis face and releases from the trans face

41
Q

What does the golgi apperatus do

A

It mediates the flow of proteins from RER and their destinations (either secreted or to an organelle)

42
Q

What does the mannose 6-phosphate receptor do

A

binds to the phosporylated lysosomal enzyme and tells the golgi that it is a lysosomal enzyme that must be transported to the lysosome (it is recycled in its pathway)

43
Q

What is glycosylation

A

Principle modification of protwins in the golgi

44
Q

How does cystic fibrosis affect cilliated and goblet cells

A

Goblet cells produce dry mucus that is harder to remove and there are less cilliated cells to remove them

45
Q

What are lysosomes and what do they do

A

A vesicular structure that contains 60 hydrolytic enzymes that activate in acidic conditions. They digest targets by fusing with it and pumping hydrogen ions into the lysosome to activate the enzymes

46
Q

what are lysosomal storage diseases

A

Non funtional lysosomal enzymes resulting in build up of insoluble metabolytes causing the lysosome to enlarge

47
Q

What is exocytosis

A

Vesicles that fuse to the interior of the cell membrne to expel their contents out of the cell

48
Q

What is endocytosis - phagocytosis

A

Pseudopodium elongate and engluf the target and wrap around it to absorb it into the cell creating a vacuole containting the target (protozoa feed like this)

49
Q

What is pinocytosis

A

Plasma membrane being pinched off to absorb extracellular fluid

50
Q

What is receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

Macromolecules binding to specific cll surface receptors triggering endocytosis. This can cause them to be transferred to lysosomes or golgi for processing.
This is also how viruses enter the cell

51
Q

Where did mitochondira come from in theory

A

Anaerobic cell ingests aerobic bacteria and over time becomes adapted to the internal environment of the cell

52
Q

Why and how do mitochondira move around the cell

A

They move via the microtubules of the cytoskeleton and are found in locations of high ATP consumption

53
Q

What can ATP do

A

Can phospohyorlyate trnasport proteins
Can phosphorylate motor proteins
Can phosphorylate key reactants

54
Q

How do mitochondria obtain the energy for ATP synthesis

A

High energy electrons of orgnnic molecules

55
Q

How many molecules of NADH , ATP and FADH2 are produced in one cycle of the krebs (one Acertyl CoA)

A

3 NADH
1 ATP
1FADH2

56
Q

What is the electron transport chain

A

A collection of multiprotein complexes in the mitochondria inner membrane
Electrons from NADH and FADH2 loose energy as they go down the chain (energy used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane)

57
Q

What is the difference between FADH2 and NADH

A

FADH2 picks up slightly lower energy electrons and joins the electron transport chain at a different point

58
Q

How many ATP molecules are produced roughly per 10 Hydrogen ions

A

~3 ATP per 10 H+

59
Q

What are some mitochondrial poisons

A

Cyanide (blocks electron transport chain)
2,4-Dinitrophenol (makes membrane leaky to H+ and cooks you from the inside)

60
Q
A

BIOL (5 decks)

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