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BIOL 123 Flashcards

1
Q

What type of symbyotic relationships are there?

A

Mutualistic - both benefit
Commensal - one benefits without harming other
Parasitic - one benefits by harming the other

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2
Q

What are the stages of infectious disease

A

Incubation (before symptoms)
Prodromal (general mild symptoms such as fatigue and is not present in all diseases)
Illness (symptoms evident, immune system not fully responded)
Convalescence (body returns to normal)

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3
Q

What is pathogenesis influenced by?

A

Number of pathogens present
Virulence of the organism
Reaction of the host (resistance/immune response)

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4
Q

How is the burden of disease measured?

A

Incidence - number of new cases in a time period
Prevenelnce - total infected individuals (old + new)
Mortality - total deaths from disease in a time period

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5
Q

what is a DALY ?

A

The “disability adjusted life year” which measures overall disease burden calculated by adding years of life lost due to prematur emortality and years of healthy life lost due to disability.

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6
Q

Why are DALYs not completely useful?

A

They only measure health loss and not economic impacts or social stigmas.

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7
Q

How did immunology develop?

A

Originally people reliased if you got ill you wouldn’t get the same illness again, then people tried getting ill using small doses, then people used similar but less harmful diseases (such as cowpox to vaccinate against smallpox) finally they used attenuated or non harmful sources to gain the same immunity

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8
Q

How are parasites effective pathogens?

A

They evade the innate immune response or bypass it. They are also too big to be phagocytosed.

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9
Q

what mechanical barriers make up the innate immune system

A
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10
Q

What do neutrophils do to trap bacteria

A

They unravel and excrete their dna which sticks to bacteria trapping tem and can even have an antimicrobial affect

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11
Q

What do granulocytes do?

A

They are responsible for alergies but originally developed to fight parasitic worm infections.

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12
Q

How does inflammation occur

A

1) Tissue damage / bacteria cause resident sentinel cells to release chemicals that trigger increase in blood flow and capillary permeability
2) activation of clotting and complement cascades
3) neutrophils secrete chemokines to recruit monocytes from blood
4)pahgocytosis
5) Macrophages migrate to tissue and recruit more immune cells for an immune response

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13
Q

What are the systemic acute phase responses that accompany local inflammation?

A

Fever (increases temp to speed up reactions)
Leukocytosis (increased white cell production)
Acute phase protein produced by liver (CRP, IL-6 and CXCL8)

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14
Q

What is complement?

A

A group of serum protein that defend against pathogens (particularly extracellular bacteria)
Mostly made in the liver
Has links to inate immunity

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15
Q

What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

A

Innate:
non-specific, present at birth, wide range, in all animal species
Adaptive:
specific, gained through exposure, Delayed, memory against same pathogen only in vertebrates

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16
Q

What type of innate immune cell activates an adaptive immune response?

A

Dendritic cells

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17
Q

What type of adaptive immune cell can detect antigens without being presented them

A

B cells

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18
Q

Are there more innate immune cells or adaptive immune cells

A

There are more innate immune cells

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19
Q

Where are lymphocytes formed?

A

In the bone marrow and thymus (for precursor T cells)

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20
Q

Where do activated B cells go to rapidly divide?

A

In the germinal centres of the spleen

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21
Q

How do T cells develop

A

Any T cells that do not recognise MHC are killed and then they either express CD8 (cytotoxic) or CD4 (helper) proteins to determine what cell they become

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22
Q

Where are antigens for Cytotoxic T cells presented on infected cells

A

on MHC-1 proteins

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23
Q

What is the difference between MHC-1 and MHC-2 (II)

A

MHC-1 is expressed by all nucleated cells and is recognised by CD8+
MHC-2 is expressed by specialised antibody presenting cells and is recognised by CD4+

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24
Q

What is a simple life cycle of the plasmodium parasite (malaria)?

A

Mosquito injects sporozoites into the human and it progresses in the liver cells into schitxonts before rupturing and entering the blood where it matures either into more schitzonts or gametocytes which are taken in by mosquitos when taking a blood meal to develop and fuse (sexual reproduction phase) in the mosquito gut and repeating the cycle.

25
What is the life cycle of a nematode?
4 larvae stages before an adult stage (Infective at the 3rd stage)
26
What Is ascaris and how does it infect?
It is a Soil Transmitted Helminth and is ingested by the host. Where it develops and migrates to the lungs where the eggs are coughed up and swallowed where they are then extreted.
27
What is Wucheria Bancrofti and how does it infect (filriasis)?
It is a nematode infection that occupy the lymphatic system, sumcutaneous skin and pleural or pericartal cavities. They are transmitted by mosquitoes and black flies.
28
How does tapeworm reproduction work?
They are monoecious (both sex organs) and can self fertilise but can also sexually reproduce with other tapeworms.
29
What is a tapeworm made up of?
Scrolex - hooks/suckers for host Strobila - chain of proglottids Proglottids - contain eggs and are shed releasing them.
30
What is the difference between being a definitive tapeworm host and an intermediate host?
Definitve hosts occur when humans eat infected meat whereas intermediate comes from eating eggs from the environment (fecal contamination or proglottid backflow).
31
How is a tapeworm infection treated?
Using praziquantel (and other drugs to treat symptoms in case of cysticerosis)
32
What are symptoms of tapeworms in humans?
In definitive cases rarely cause intestinal blockage or penetrate gut wall but symptoms mostly include digestive disturbance, abdominal pain, nausea and weight loss. In intermediate cases disturbed vision if in eyes and seizures, headaches, balance issues and brain swelling if brain infection.
33
What complications can Echinococcus ganulosus (dog tapeworms) cause?
Hydatid cysts can form in the lungs, liver or rarely in the brain (1-20cm cysts with litres of fluid). Often asymptomatic and only found in autopsy.
34
Where might you find a segmented genome?
In influenza or other virions.
35
What surface proteins does Influenza A have?
Haemagglutin (HA) - binds to sialic acid receptors and Agglutinates RBC Neuraminidase (NA) - cleaves sialic acid to release virus and degreades mucin Matrix protein 2 (M2) - forms protein channel facilitating uncoating and assembly.
36
What is the difference between virsues that are antigenic and neutralisizing or non-neutralizing ?
Neutralizing ones are killed by the immune system and non-neutralizing ones aren't (double check)
37
What types of influenza are there?
A - most common B- rarer C - mild conditions (no epidemics) D - only swine and cattle
38
What are the steps in the influenza virus replication cycle?
1) attatchment 2) Uncoating 3) Transcription 4) Replication 5) assembly 6) budding
39
Wha tis the cleavage site on the haemagglutinin protein
The site where the siingle chain is cut into with two chains, It is afusion peptide at the eN-termins which is critical for infectivity.
40
How does the structure of influenza change?
Antigenic drift due to mutation in replication Antigenic shift (reassortment of genes due to segmented genomes or wide host ranges)
41
What antiviral treatments are there for influenza?
Adamantanes (M2-ion channel inhibitors) Nauraminidase inhibitors
42
What was the difference between SARS-CoV-1 (SARS) and SARS-Cov-2 (CoVID-19)?
SARS cause was known (spillover reservoir from civet cats) and only transmitted in hospitals for 24-36hrs after symptoms with no asymptomatic cases Covid has unknown spillover reservoir and spread widely due to asymptomatic cases and less fatal cases.
43
Why is it important to understand the genomic composition of SARS-COV-2?
It allows testing devices that target specific genes to be developed.
44
What is the difference between how omicron and delta variants enter the cells
Delta uses TMPRSS2 protease to cleave the S protein and allow the cleavage site to attack the cell membrane and fuse with it Omicron undergoes endocytosis without the protease to enter the cell in an endosome and fuses with the endosome.
45
What parts of the SARS-COV-2 replication cycle are there?
1) Viral attatchment and entry 2) Replication and synthesis 3) VIral assembly and release
46
Why was Delta more pathogenic compared to omicron
due to its method of entry it infects both the upper and lower respiratory tract compared to omicron which only infects the upper.
47
Where can you find adaptive immunity for SARS-COV-2?
Most of them are in the blood but Secretory glands such as salivary glands can produce antibodies and T cells.
48
What masks are best for reducing transmission in terms of filtration efficiency?
N95 are best (close to 100%) Surgical masks are good (70%) Cotton marks are face decoration (15%)
49
What treatment strategies were used for SARS-COV-2?
Monoclonal antibodies for ACE-2 Camostat mesylate - acts on TMPRSS2 to stop entry Lopinavir-Ritonavir - inhibits protease activity of SARS-COV-2 Ribavirin (HCV) - might inhibit mRNA capping RNA syntheis inhibitors Chloroquine group - interferes with progrey release.
50
What is the difference between vaccination and immunisation?
Vaccination is actually being injected with the vaccine Immunisation means recieving the vaccine AND becoming immune to a disease due to it
51
What does a good vaccine need to do?
Give immmunity without causing diease Be safe for most people Be stable Cheap Easily administered Long term protection Interrupts spread of infection
52
What types of vaccine are there?
Live vaccines- whole pathogen that has been attenuated Inactivated vaccine - whole killed organisms Subunit vaccines - certain components of pathogens (such as antigens) Passive immunotherapy
53
What are the advantages and disadvantages of live attenuated vaccine for polio?
Advantages: Cheap, long term immunity, both systematic and mucosal immunity, interrupts transmission Disadvantages: Slight chance it can revert to virulent form, can't be used on immunosupressed/pregnant and is unstable (lasts 1 week at 37 degrees)
54
What are the advantages and disadvantages of killed (inactivated) vaccine for polio.
Advantages: Can't cause infection, can be given to immunosupressed/pregnant Disadvantages: Less immunogenic, doesn't last forever, expensive (compared to live)
55
What is and adjuvant and what does it do?
It enhances immune response to antigens in the vaccine.
56
What is an RNA vaccine?
mRNA usually encapsulated in lipid vesicle taken into the cytoplasm which encodes the receptor for the viral antigen.
57
What are surface protein vaccines?
Surface coat proteins purified from carrier blood or made with recombinant DNA technology.
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BIOL (14 decks)

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