Bio 23 sections 5-6 Chapter 2.4 Textbook Flashcards
What is the study of the compounds of carbon?
Organic chemistry
How many valence electrons does carbon have?
Four
Carbon atoms that readily bond with each other and form long chains, branched molecules, and rings are known as?
Carbon backbones
Functional group
Small clusters of atoms that determine many of the properties of an organic molecule
Hydroxyl Group
(-OH)
Occurs in sugars and alcohol
Methyl group
(-CH3)
Occurs in fats, oils, steroids, and amino acids.
Carboxyl Group
(-COOH)
Occurs in Amino acids, sugars, and proteins
Amino Group
(-NH2)
Ouccurs in Amino acids, and proteins
Phosphate Group
(-H2PO4)
Occurs in Nucleic acids and ATP
What are polymers?
A molecule consists of a long chain of identical or similar subunits such as protein, DNA, and starch.
Most macromolecules are polymers
What is a Monomer?
One of the identical or similar subunits of a larger molecule in the dimmer to polymer range
What is dehydration synthesis?
When two monomers become joined by a covalent bond and form a dimmer and water is a by-product.
What is hydrolysis synthesis?
When the dimmer gives up the H+ and OH- break the bond of the two monomers and let them consume the water. forming two monomers
What is a Carbohydrate?
It is a hydrophilic organic molecule with the general formula (CH2O)n…
What is it called when monomers join to form a polymer?
Polymerization
The simplest carbohydrates are monomers called?
Monosaccharides or simple sugars
What are the three primary monosaccharides?
Glucose, galactose, and fructose. With the molecular formula C6H12O6
What monosaccharide provides the most energy to cells?
Glucose (blood sugar)
What are disaccharides?
A Carbohydrate that is composed of two simple sugars joined by a glycosidic bond.
What are the three primary disaccharides?
Lactose, sucrose, and maltose
What two monosaccharides make sucrose?
Glucose + fructose
What two monosaccharides make lactose?
Glucose + galactose
What two monosaccharides make maltose?
Glucose + Glucose
Short chains of three or more monosaccharides are?
Oligosaccharides
Long chains (up to thousands of monosaccharides long) are called?
Polysaccharides
What are the three primary polysaccharides to human physiology?
Glycogen, starch, cellulose
what is glycogen?
A glucose polymer synthesized by liver, muscle, uterine, and vaginal cells that serve as an energy-storage polysaccharide.
When does the liver produce glycogen?
After for meal for instance when the glucose levels are high.
What stores glycogen for its own energy needs?
Muscles
What does the uterus use glycogen for?
It is used in the early stage of pregnancy to nourish the embryo.
What is the corresponding energy-storage polysaccharides of plants?
Starch
What is the only significant digestible polysaccharides in a human diet?
Starch
What is the structural polysaccharides that give strength to the cell walls of plants?
Cellulose
What is the most abundant organic compound on earth but can not be digested by humans?
Cellilose
What does conjugated mean?
It is a state in which one organic compound is bound to another compound of a different class. For example, a protein conjugated with a carbohydrate to form glycoproteins.
What are the three main types of conjugated carbohydrates?
Glycoproteins, Glycolipids, and Proteoglycan
What is a glycolipid?
A phospholipid molecule with a carbohydrate covalent bonded to it, is found in the plasma membrane of the cell.
What is a glycoprotein?
A protein molecule with a smaller carbohydrate covalently bonded to it; found in mucus and the glycocalyx of the cell.
What is a proteoglycan?
It is a large molecule composed of a bristlelike arrangement of glycosaminoglycans surrounding a protein core in a shape resembling a bottle brush.
What do proteoglycans form?
They form gels that hold cells and tissues together and form a gelatinous filler in the umbilical cord and eye, lubricated the joints of the skeletal system, and account for the tough rubbery texture of cartilage.
What is a moiety?
A chemically distinct subunit of a macromolecule, such as the hemo and globin moieties of hemoglobin or the lipid and carbohydrate moieties of a glycolipid.
What is a lipid?
A hydrophobic organic compound composed mainly of carbon and a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen; including fatty acids, fats, phospholipids, steroids, and prostaglandin
What are the five primary types of lipids in humans?
Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, and steroids.
What is the function of thw lipid named BILE ACIDS
Steroids that aid in fat digestion and nutrient absorption.
What is the function of the lipid named cholesterol?
It is a component of cell membranes; a precursor of other steroids
What is the function of the lipid named Eicosandoids?
Chemical messengers between cells
What is the function of the lipid named Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
It is involved in a number of functions including blood-clotting, wound healing, vision and calcium absorption
What is the function of the lipid named Fatty acids?
Precursor of triglycerides; source of energy
What is the function of the lipid named Phospholipids?
Major component of cells membranes; aids in fat digestion
What is the function of the lipid named Steroids hormones?
Chemical messenger between cells
What is the function of the lipid named Triglycerides?
Emergy storage; thermal insulation; filling space; binding organs together; cushioning organs.
What is fatty acid?
An organic molecule is composed of a chain of an even number (4-24) of carbon atoms with a carboxyl group at one end and a methyl group and the other; one of the structural subunits of triglycerides and phospholipids.
What are the two categories of fatty acids?
Saturated or unsaturated
What makes saturated fatty acids saturated?
They hold the maximum amount of hydrogen per carbon
What makes unsaturated fatty acids unsaturated?
They do not hold the maximum number of hydrogen per carbon.
What are polyunsaturated fatty acids?
They are the ones that have multiple C=C bonds
Most fatty acids can be synthesized by humans but a few must be obtained from the diet because we can not synthesize them. What Is the name of that fatty acids?
Essential Fatty Acids
What is triglyceride?
A lipid composed of three fatty acids joined to glycerol; also called triacylglycerol or neutral fat.
Once joined to glycerol a fatty acid can no longer donate a proton to the solution and is therefore no longer an acid for this reason this lipid is also called what?
Neutral fats
Triglycerides are broken down by what reaction?
Hydrolysis
Triglycerides at room temperature are also called?
Oils
What is a phospholipid?
An amphipathic molecule composed of two fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group bonded to the three carbons of a glycerol molecule
Compose mot if the molecules of the plasma membrane and other cellular membranes
What does amphipathic mean?
Pertaining to a molecule that has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
What is the hydrophilic region of the phospholipid?
The head and they are also known as polar (water-loving)
What is the hydrophobic region of a phospholipid?
The tails and they are also known as non-polar (water-fearing)
What are Eicosanoids?
They are 20-carbon compounds derived from a fatty acid called arachidonic acid.
What are the most diverse eicosanoids?
Prostaglandins
What are prostaglandins?
An eicosanoid with five-sided carbon rings in the middle of the hydrocarbon chain.
What is a steroid?
It is a lipid with 17 of its carbons arranged in four rings.
What is cholesterol?
A steroid that functions as part of the plasma membrane and as a precursor for all other steroids in the body.
How much cholesterol comes from our diet and how much is internally synthesized primarily by the liver?
15% diet and 85% from internal synthesized
What is a protein?
A larger polypeptide; while criteria from a protein are somewhat subjective and variable. Polypeptides over 50 amino acids long are generally classified as proteins.
Protein is a polymer of what?
Amino acids.
The 20 amino acids used to make proteins are identical except for a third functional group named what?
R group radical
What is a peptide?
Any chain of two or more amino acids.
What is a peptide bond?
A group of four covalently bonded atoms (a-C=O group bonded to an -NH group) that link two amino acids in a protein or other peptide.
What is confirmation?
The three-dimensional structure of a protein that results from interaction among its amino acid side groups, its interaction with water, and the formation of disulfide bonds.
Protein molecules have how many levels of complexity?
Anywhere from 3-4
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
What are primary structures?
It is that protein sequence of amino acids, which is encoded in the genes.
What is secondary structure?
It is a coiled or folded shape held together by a hydrogen bond between the slightly negative -C=O group peptide bond and the slightly positive -NH group of another one some distance away.
How many secondary structures are there?
Two
Alpha helix
Beta shgeet
What shape does the alpha helix resemble?
Springlike
What shape does the Beta sheet resemble?
Pleated, ribbonlike
How are tertiary structures formed?
By further bending and folding of proteins into various globular and fibrous shapes.
What do Globular proteins resemble?
A wadded ball of yarn
What do fibrous proteins look like?
Slender filaments
What are quaternary structures?
It is the association of two or more polypeptide chains by noncovalent forces such as ionic bonds and hydrophilic- hydrophobic interactions.
What is denaturation?
A charge in the three-dimensional conformations of a protein destroys its enzymatic or other functional properties. usually caused by extremes of temp and pH.
What is keratin?
It is a structural protein, gives strength to the nails, hair, and skin surface.
Deeper layers of the skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth contain an abundance of a durable protein called what?
Collagen
What is movement?
Fundamental to all life.
Most enzymes are proteins that function as what?
Biological catalysts
What is a substrate?
A chemical that is acted upon and changed by an enzyme
A chemical used as a source of energy, such as glucose and fatty acids.
The region of a protein that binds to a ligand, such as the substrate-binding site of an enzyme or the hormone-binding site of a receptor is called?
Active site
What does substrate specificity mean?
It is the ability of an enzyme to bind only one substrate or a limited range of related substrates.
What is the enzyme-substrate complex?
The fit between a particular enzyme and its substrate.
What are factors that change the shape of an enzyme
Notable temperature and pH changes
About two-thirds of human enzymes require a nonprotein partner called what?
Cofactor
What is a cofactor?
It is a nonprotein such as a mental ion or coenzyme needed for an enzyme to function.
What is a coenzyme?
It is a small organic molecule usually derived from vitamins that is needed to make an enzyme catalytically active.
What is a metabolic pathway?
It is a chain of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme.
What is a nucleotide?
It is an organic molecule composed of a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and a phosphate group; the monomer of a nucleic acid
One of the most known nucleotide is?
ATP
What is the body’s most important energy transfer molecule?
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate
What is phosphorylation?
Addition of an inorganic phosphate group to an organic molecule.
What is the enzyme that adds an inorganic phosphate group to another organic molecule also known as phosphokinase?
Kinase
What is the first stage in glucose oxidation?
Glycolysis
What is glycolysis?
A series of anaerobic oxidation reactions breaks a glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvate and produce small amounts of ATP.
When the demand for ATP outpaces the oxygen supply, excess pyruvate is converted to lactate by a pathway called?
Anaerobic fermentation
What are the two disadvantages of anaerobic fermentation?
1) it doesn’t extract any more energy from pyruvate
2) the lactate it produces is toxic
If enough oxygen is available a more efficient pathway is called.
Aerobic respiration
What is aerobic respiration?
It is the oxidation of organic compounds in a reactions series that requires oxygen and produces APT
What is Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
It is a nucleotide that is formed by the removal of both the second and third phosphate groups from ATP
What is nucleic acid?
An acidic polymer of nucleotides found or produced in the nucleus, functioning in the heredity and protein synthesis of two types, DNA and RNA.
