approaches to psychology

Question 1

what is classical conditioning

Answer 1

when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response

Question 2

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 2

Learning through reinforcement or punishment. If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future.

Question 3

what is modelling

Answer 3

a form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing others

Question 4

what is imitation

Answer 4

the action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour

Question 5

what is vicarious reinforcement

Answer 5

learning through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

Question 6

what is a behaviourist?

Answer 6

someone who believes that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning.

Question 7

what is social learning theory?

Answer 7

learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded

Question 8

What is introspection?

Answer 8

the process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her mental and emotional state

Question 9

What is Empiricism?

Answer 9

The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.

Question 10

What is Punishment?

Answer 10

involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again in the future.

Question 11

What is inference?

Answer 11

reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning

Question 12

What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 12

It’s when a behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organisms

Question 13

What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 13

When something “unpleasant” is removed to restore the organism to it’s “pre-aversive”

Question 14

Define the term mediational processes.

Answer 14

refer to the internal mental processes that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual performing that behaviour.

Question 15

What is reinforcement?

Answer 15

Anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that it will happen again

Question 16

What is Extinction?

Answer 16

If a behaviour that is being reinforced stops being reinforced then it will gradually stop happening

Question 17

Name and describe the Mediational Processes

Answer 17

1. Attention - To learn behaviour from others, you have to pay attention. Once you notice your role model, you have to give your full attention and attend to their behaviour.
2. Retention - Not only do you need to pay attention at the time, but you need to remember what you observed to be able to model it.
3. Reproduction - Then you judge if you’re capable of reproducing that behaviour. If you think you can you’re far more likely to do it.
4. Motivation - You evaluate the direct or indirect results of imitating the behaviour. If the behaviour results in a good reward, you’re more likely to imitate it.

Question 18

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

Answer 18

Is the natural stimulus to any reflex. i.e a natural thing or event that cause a specific functional reaction

Question 19

What’s identification?

Answer 19

It’s the extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels that he or she is similar to that person.

Question 20

What are defence mechanisms?

Answer 20

Unconscious strategies that protect our conscious mind from anxiety.

Question 21

What is Psychoanalysis?

Answer 21

A term used to describe the personality theory and therapy associated with Sigmund Freud.

Question 22

Define the term Psychodynamic.

Answer 22

Refers to any theory that emphasises change and development in the individual, particularly those theories where “drive” is the central concept in development.

Question 23

Define the term Unconscious.

Answer 23

That part of the human mind that contains repressed ideas and memories, as well as primitive desires and impulses that have never been allowed to enter the conscious mind.

Question 24

What is Self-actualisation?

Answer 24

Rogers used it as the drive to realise one’s true potential. Maslow used it to describe the final stage of his hierarchy of needs.

Question 25

Define the term Humanistic.

Answer 25

Refers to the belief that human beings are born with the desire to grow, create and love, and have the power to direct their own lives.

Question 26

What is Congruence?

Answer 26

If there is similarity between a person’s ideal self and self image, a state of congruence exists,

Question 27

What are conditions of worth?

Answer 27

Conditions imposed on an individual’s behaviour and development that are necessary to earn positive regard from significant others.

Question 28

Define the term Hierarchy of needs.

Answer 28

The motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, often displayed as a pyramid. The most basic needs are at the bottom and the higher at the top.

Question 29

What is Self?

Answer 29

Our personal identity, used synonymously with the terms “self-image” and “self-concept”.

Question 30

Name the all the defence mechanisms?

Answer 30

1. Repression - bottling it up
2. Denial - pretending there’s no problem
3. Displacement - taking it out on another, usually similar object/ person
4. Minimisation - telling yourself it’s not as big a deal as it really is

Question 31

What are the psychosexual stages of development?

Answer 31

1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. latent
5. genital

Question 32

Describe the psychosexual stages of development.

Answer 32

1. Oral - the mouth - sucking, swallowing etc (EGO develops)
2. Anal - the anus - withholding or expelling faeces
3. Phallic - the penis or clitoris - masturbation (superego develops)
4. Latent - little or no sexual motivation present
5. genital - the penis or vagina - sexual intercourse.

Question 33

describe the id

Answer 33

It operates solely in the unconscious. It contains the libido, the biological energy created by the reproductive instincts. It operates according to the pleasure principle.

Question 34

Describe the ego.

Answer 34

it mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the reality of the external world (the reality principle)

Question 35

Describe the superego

Answer 35

this is divided into the conscience and the ego-ideal. This conscience is the internalisation of societal rules. It determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken

Question 36

Evaluate the behaviourist approach.

Answer 36

1. over reliance non-human animal research - humans have “free will” but skinner argue that free will is merely an illusion and what we believe are behaviours chosen through free will are actually the product of external influences that “guide” our behaviour on a daily basis.
2. classical conditioning has been applied to therapy - phobia treatment - systematic desensitisation - found to be effective for a range of phobias e.g arachnophobia and aerophobia.

Question 37

evaluate social learning theory

Answer 37

1. has useful applications - e.g criminal behaviour (CM) - Akers (1998) suggests that the probability of someone engaging in CM increases when exposed to models etc.
2. research support for identification - fox and bailenson (2009) virtual humans exercising or loitering. participants (Ps) who watched their virtual selfs exercising engaged in more exercise within 24 hours of the experiment.
3. a problem of complexity - devel of gender role behaviour. a child is exposed to many different influences. all of them interacting in complex ways. difficult to show on particular thing being the main influence.
4. a problem of establishing causality - young people who possess social deviant attitudes (e.g low self- control) would seek out peers as they’re more fun to be around with than their less reckless counterparts

Question 38

evaluate the humanistic approach.

Answer 38

1. research support for conditions of worth - harter el al. (1996) discovered that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfill certain conditions in order to gain their parents’ approval frequently end up not liking themselves.
2. cultural differences in the hierarchy of needs - some people needs may appear in a different order or may be absent all together