Applied Anatomy And Physiology Flashcards
The structure of the skeleton
What does it provide?
A framework for the muscles to produce movement
A point for muscles - where muscles contract they pull bones to create movement
Flat bones
Are often large and usually protect vital organs
Examples of flat bones
Pelvis and cranium
Long bones
Enable gross large movement
Examples of long bones
Tibia
Fibia
Femur
Short bones
Enable finer controlled movement
Examples of short bones
Tallus
Irregular bones
Are specifically shaped to protect
Examples of irregular bones
The vertebrae designed to protect the spinal cord
And Patella
What are the functions of the skeleton?
Support Protection of vital organs Movement Structural shape Blood cell production Storage of minerals
function of the skeleton: support
Rigid bones keep us upright and hold the rest of the body in place
function of the skeleton: protection of vital organs
Flat bones enclose and protect vital organs
Eg the brain is inside the cranium and the ribs protect the lungs and heart
function of the skeleton: movement
Bones provide anchor points for muscles; bones work as leavers to allow movement
function of the skeleton: structural shape
Bones give us our general shape, such as our shape and build
function of the skeleton: blood cell production
The inner marrow of long bones and ribs produce red and white blood cells
function of the skeleton: storage of minerals
Bones store calcium and phosphorus
What is a joint?
Where two or more bones meet to allow movement
What are synovial joints?
Shoulder, knee, hip, elbow and ankle
Hinge and ball and socket
Tendons
Very strong non elastic cords that join muscle to bone
Bursae
A sac filled with liquid that floats inside the joint
Reduces friction between tendons and bones
Cartilage
Preventing bones rubbing to together - shock absorber
Prevents friction as it cover the end of the bone
Synovial fluid
Clear and slippered liquid that lubricates the joint and stops the bones rubbing together
Ligaments
Bands of elastic fibre that attach bone to bone
Keeping the joints stable by restricting movement
Synovial membrane
The lining inside the joint capsule that releases synovial fluid
Joint capsule
Tissue that stops the synovial fluid from escaping and supports and holds the bones together
Shoulder joint
Articulating bones
Type
Movements
Humerus and scapula
Ball and socket
Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction , rotation
Elbow joint
Articulating bones
Type
Movements
Humerus and ulna and radius
Hinge joint
Flexion and extension
Knee joint
Articulating bones
Type
Movements
Femur , tibia and Patella
Hinge joint
Flexion and extension
Hip joint
Articulating bones
Type
Movements
Femur and pelvis
Ball and socket
Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
Ankle joint
Articulating bones
Type
Movements
Tibia talus fibula
Hinge joint
Plantar flexion, dorsi flexion
Flexion
Movement where the angle between the bones decrease
Extension
Movement where the angle between the bones increase
Plantar flexion
Movement that describes the pointing of the foot towards the ground
Dorsi flexion
Movement that involves the movement of the foot away from the ground
Abduction
Movement where limbs are moved away from the body
Adduction
Movement where limbs are moved backwards towards the body
Rotation
Turning a limb along its axis
Prime mover or agonist
The muscle that contracts to create movement
Antagonist
The muscle that relaxes
Antagonistic pair at the elbow joint
Bicep and tricep
Antagonistic pair at the hip joint
Hip flexors and gluteals
Antagonistic pair at the knee joint
Hamstring and quadriceps
Isometric contractions
Example
Where the muscle stays at the same length- starting position for a sprinter
Isotonic contraction
Occur when the muscle changes length when it contracts causing a movement of a body part
Concentric isotonic contractions
Occur when the muscles shortens as it contracts
Any movement that is moving upwards is concentric
Eccentric isotonic contractions
Occur when the muscle lengthens as it contracts
Any movement that is moving downwards is eccentric
Mouth or nose
External openings to the respiratory system
Trachea
Inner surfaces is covered with cilia -thin film that catches dust particles
Kept open by rings of cartilage
Bronchi
Two- go into left and right lung
Lungs
Large and spongy
Optimised for gas exchange
Bronchioles
Very narrow - less than 1mm thick
Alveoli
Lots of them branching off bronchioles
Many air sacs for gas exchange
Features of alveoli- very small but lots of them
Large surface area for gas exchange
Features of alveoli- layer of moisture in the walls
Makes gas exchange more efficient
Features of alveoli- walls of alveoli and capillaries are thin
Short diffusion pathway
Features of alveoli- surrounded by a network of capillaries
Rich and large supply of blood allows more gas exchange to happen
Gas exchange
The process of diffusion where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged into the blood and lungs
Oxygen - concentration gradient
High concentration comes from the air to the alveoli and to a low concentration in the blood
Carbon dioxide - concentration book
High concentration in the blood from working muscles to a low concentration in the alveoli
Haemoglobin
A protein and red pigment found in red blood cells that transports round oxygen and carbon dioxide
Oxyhemoglobin
When oxygen diffuses into red blood cells it combines to haemoglobin making haemoglobin
Gaseous exchange - 1
Oxygen breathed goes to alveoli and into the red blood cells in capillary
Gaseous exchange- 2
Oxygen combines to make oxyhemoglobin and is carried round the body
Gaseous exchange 3
At the same time, haemoglobin carries carbon dioxide from body to capillaries
Gaseous exchange 4
Carbon dioxide passes through alveoli and is breathed out
Inspiration - at rest
Diaphragm-contracts which cause it to flatten
Intercostal muscles - contract causing the ribs to lift upwards and outwards
Chest cavity - increases in size which causes the air pressure to reduce and causes air to be sucked into lungs
Expiration - at rest
Expulsion of air from lungs caused by reducing volume of chest cavity
Diaphragm - relaxes causing it to turn into its normal shape
Intercostal - relax lowering the ribs and making the chest cavity smaller
-causes an increase in the pressure of air in the lungs which forces the air out
Inspiration - during exercise
Sternocleidomastoid and pectorals - contract and help to raise the sternum
Chest cavity - increases in size which allows the lungs to expand to allow more air in
Expiration - during exercise
Abdominal - contract and pull the rib cage down
This helps force the air out of the lungs to speed up expiration
Inspiratory reserve volume
Amount of extra air that can be inspired during a deep breath
Tidal volume
The amount of air taken in or out with each breath
Residual volume
Amount of air left in lungs after maximal expiration
Expiratory reserve volume
Amount of extra air that can be expired during forceful breath out
Vital capacity
The maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after a maximum inhalation
Tidal volume - exercise
Increases as you take deeper breaths in and out
Peaks are high, dips are low
Breathing rate- exercise
Increases as you take more breaths per minute
Peaks are closer together
Arteries
Thick muscle Small lumen Carries red oxygenated blood Has a pulse Stretches as blood surges
Veins
Thick walls and muscle Large lumen No stretch, no pulse Valve for the heart Carries deoxygenated blood
Capillaries
Thin walls
Link arteries and veins
Diffusion - gas exchange
Very narrow
Vasodilation
Increasing the diameter of an artery to increase blood flow to working muscle
Vasoconstriction
Decreasing the diameter of an artery to decrease blood flow to non essential areas of the body
Diastole -what is the heart doing?
Oxy and deoxy
The heart is filling with blood - relaxing
Atria and ventricles reflex and valves are open
Deoxygenated blood flows into the right atrium
Oxygenated blood flows into the left atrium
Systole - what is the heart doing?
What happens during this process?
The heart emptying - the heart is contracting
Right atrioventricular valve is forced closed - prevents backflow
RV contracts and forces blood out by pulmonary artery -lungs
LA empties into LV
LeftATV is forced closed - LV contracts forces blood out into aorta -body
Heart rate
The number of beats per minute
Cardiac output
The amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle if the heart per minute
Stroke volume
The amount of blood pumped out if the left ventricle per beat
Cardiac output equation
Cardiac output = stoke volume x heart rate
What happens to the heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output when you start to exercise?
Cardiac output increases because an increase in the heart rate causes an increase in the volume of blood released into the body
What happens to your heart rate as you stop exercise?
Heart rate remains elevated and reduced slowly to allow recovery to take place
Aerobic exercise
Relies on energy produced in the presence of oxygen
Aerobic exercise is different to anaerobic exercise because …
Aerobic exercise can be maintained for a long period of time
60-80% of maximal heart rate is your aerobic training zone
Who would use aerobic respiration?
Marathon runner, endurance cyclist
Aerobic respiration equation
Glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water
Anaerobic exercise
Producing energy with the absence of oxygen during high intensity, short burst exercise
80-90% of maximal heart rate is your anaerobic training zone
Anaerobic equation
Glucose — energy + lactic acid
Who would use anaerobic exercise?
100m spring
Counter attack in football, basketball, hockey
What is oxygen debt?
Oxygen debt is the temporary oxygen short in the body due to strenuous exercise
What is epoc?
Amount of oxygen needed to recover after exercise
It is characterised by an increased breathing rate and deeper breathing
Epoc replenishes the body with oxygen
The lactic acid is converted into glucose, water and carbon dioxide
Anaerobic epoc?
More lactic acid produced
More oxygen debt to repay
Takes longer to get rid of lactic acid
What is a cool down?
It helps maintain a increased breathing rate and blood flow
Helps decrease the body temp and remove lactic acid
Assist the recovery as extra oxygen is required for the body to return to its ore exercise state
Advantages of of a cool down
Reduces delayed onset muscle soreness Stops dizziness Easy to complete No equipment Aids clearing of waste products
Stretching
A thorough full body stretch will aid the removal of lactic acid and reduces stiffness and soreness left post exercise
Stretching advantages
Reduces Dom’s
Easy to complete
No equipment
Aids the clearing of the waste products
Stretching disadvantages
Boring
Make sure you don’t over stretch
Drinking water
Water and electrolyte balance should be restored after exercise
Water is responsible for transporting nutrients, hormones and waste products around the body
Rehydration and glycogen stores replenished
Eating a high carbohydrates meal will speed up the glycogen replacement and replenish energy stores.
Advantages of drinking water
Replaces electrolytes and glucose very easily
Disadvantages of drinking water
Can cause weight gain if strenuous exercise has not taken place
Ice baths
Get into it for 20mins - the cold water causes the blood vessels to vasoconstrict to tighten and drain the blood out of the legs
Advantages of ice baths
Simplistic and quick
Large group of muscles submerged at one time
Ice baths disadvantages
Not nice to do - cold
May not be easily available
Achieve the same results by doing a cool down or stretching
Immediate effects of exercise - hot and sweaty
Red skin is a sign the body makes to the reaction of exercise
It helps us to regulate our core temp by cooling us down
Sweat evaporates off the skin and vasodilation occurs for heat to be lost through radiation
Immediate effects of exercise - heart rate
Increased heart rate - beats with a greater force - increases stroke volume
Muscles require more oxygen to continue to work effectively
Immediate effects of exercise - increase in depth and frequency of breathing
Cause an increase in breathing - tidal volume
This allows more gaseous exchange to occur
Short term effects of exercise - 24hrs -36hrs
Tiredness and fatigue
Short term effects of exercise - light headedness
Feeling faint or dizzy which is normally due to over exertion
Often a person blood sugar levels and blood pressure will have dropped
Short term effects of exercise - nausea
Feeling sick or vomiting which could occur during and after exercise
Main cause is over exertion during exercise or stopping quickly- heavy exercise causes blood to be taken away from the stomach which causes nausea
Short term effects of exercise - Dom’s
As a result individuals may experience tender and painful muscles
Muscle soreness is a result of structural tears to the muscle fibres - allows muscles to repair stronger
Short term effects of exercise - cramp
Involuntary and painful contractions of the muscles from fatigue or strain of the muscle fibres - dehydration - loss of mineral from sweating
Long term effects of exercise - hypertrophy
Increase the size of the heart - the cardiac muscle in a trained athlete is larger and stronger - each beat forces out a larger amount of blood than a normal heart - Hypertrophy
Long term effect of exercise - bradycardia
Decreased resting heart rate
Increase heart size means it takes less beats per minute to supply the body with enough oxygen at rest
Long term effects of exercise - improvements to components of fitness
Improvements to muscular strength, endurance , speed, cardiovascular endurance and stamina all take months to develop
Long term effects of exercise - body adaptions
Improved body shape
Increased muscular endurance due to increased number of mitochondria
Improved suppleness
Increased size and strength of muscles - hypertrophy
