AP Psychology Unit 9: Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout a lifespan
Nature vs. Nurture
How does our genetic inheritance (nature) interact with our experiences (nurture) to influence our development?
Continuity vs. Stages
What parts of development are gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly in separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?
Stability vs. Change
Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?
Stage Theories
State that we develop in a set sequence. They suggest how people think and act differently when they arrive at a later age.
Zygote
The fertilized egg; It enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. Its inner cells become the embryo while its outer cells become the placenta
Germinal Stage
Starts at the time of conception, when the sperm and the egg combine to form a zygote. During the germinal stage, the zygote begins to divide in order to implant into the uterine wall. Once implantation is complete, the embryonic stage begins. Lasts roughly 10 days
Embryo
The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.
Embryonic Stage
Runs from the 5th to the 10th week of pregnancy. Organs begin to form and function and the heart begins to beat
Fetus
The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. An embryo becomes a fetus about 9 weeks after conception.
Placenta
A disc of tissue that connects a mother’s uterus to the umbilical cord, and is ultimately responsible for delivering nutrients and oxygen to a fetus
Teratogens
Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Fetal Alchohol Syndrome
Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features. Alcohol has an epigenetic effect, switching genes abnormally on or off
Baby’s Reflexes
- Rooting reflex (searching for a nipple)
- Sucking reflex (drinking breast milk)
- Startle reflex (when arms and legs spring out, followed by fist-clenching and crying)
- Grasping reflex (helps babies stay close to their caregivers)
- Babinski reflex (when the sole of the foot is stroked, the big toe moved upward while the rest of the toes fan out)
Habituation
Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
Pruning
Our developing brain’s tendency to shut down unused neural links under the influence of adrenal hormones during puberty
Association Areas
Brain areas that are associated with thinking, memory, and language. They are the last brain areas to develop in the process of maturation
Nature vs Nurture in Motor Development
Genes (nature) guide motor development (children walk at different ages)
Nurture may speed up the process of walking (some cultural groups massage their babies’ legs, speeding up the process of learning to walk)
Cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Schemas
A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Assimilation
Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Accommodation
Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Sensorimotor Stage
In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
Object Permanence
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. Develops at about 8 months of age
Preoperational Stage
In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
Conservation
The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Egocentrism
In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another person’s point of view
Pretend Play
The preoperational child’s acting out of stories which involve multiple perspectives, the playful manipulation of ideas and emotions, and the use of symbols
Theory of Mind
People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states; about their feelings, perceptions, thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. Develops during the preoperational stage, although preoperational children are still egocentric
Concrete Operational Stage
In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Reversibility is developed.
Formal Operational Stage
In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. Reasoning can be applied to imagined realities and symbols
Scaffold
A framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s concept of a zone between what a child can do and can’t do, or what they can do with help. Children learn best when their social environment presents them with something that is between too easy and too difficult
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixed interests and repetitive behaviors. This occurs due to poor communication among brain areas that normally work together to help us understand another person’s viewpoint
Animism
A preoperational child’s tendency to give life to an inanimate object
Hierarchial Classification
The ability to simultaneously sort things into general and more specific groups using different types of comparisons. Develops during the concrete operational stage.
Reversibility
A mental operation that reverses a sequence of events or restores a changed state of affairs to its original condition
Centration
A preoperational child’s tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation and neglect other, possibly relevant aspects
Stranger Anxiety
The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning about 8 months of age
Attachment
An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation
Critical Period
An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Imprinting
The process by which certain animals form strong attachments early in life
Strange Situation
A procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed
Secure Attachment
Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return
Insecure Attachment
Demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness
Temperament
A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Anxious Attachment
An attachment style where people constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant to signs of possible rejection
Avoidant Attachment
An attachment style where people experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others
Basic Trust
According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Self-Concept
All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in the answer to the question, “Who am I?”
Authoritarian Parents
Parents who are coercive, imposing rules and accepting obedience. They are highly demanding and not responsive.
Permissive Parents
Parents who are unrestraining. They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment. They are highly responsive and not demanding
Negligent Parents
Parents who are uninvolved. They are neither demanding nor responsive. They are careless, inattentive, and do not seek to have a close relationship with their child
Authoritative Parents
Parents who are confrontative. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.
Authoritarian Parenting Style’s Impact on Children
Children have less social skill and self-esteem, and a brain that overreacts when they make mistakes
Permissive Parenting Style’s Impact on Children
Children are more aggressive and immature
Negligent Parenting Style’s Impact on Children
Children experience poor academic and social outcomes
Authoritative Parenting Style’s Impact on Children
Children have high self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence
Separation Anxiety
A baby’s fear that a parent will leave and not return. The fear may be worsened in the presence of a stranger. Peaks at 13 months of age
Sex
In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
Gender
In psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman
Aggression
Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
Relational Aggression
An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing
Aggression: Men vs. Women
Men are more likely to be physically/verbally aggressive. Women are more likely to commit acts of relational aggression
Social Power: Men vs. Women
Most people see men as more powerful than women
Social Connectedness: Men vs. Women
Women are less concerned with viewing themselves as separate individuals and are more concerned with forming intimate social bonds. Women’s brains are wired in a way that enables social relationships
Male Answer Syndrome
A subject’s (most likely a man’s) exaggerated willingness to answer (or inability to resist the impulse to answer) factual questions regardless of the subject’s lack of knowledge of the relevant phenomena or circumstances.
Role
A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Gender Role
A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females
Gender Identity
Our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two
Social Learning Theory
The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Gender Typing
The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Androgyny
Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
Transgender
An umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex. Brain scans reveal that transgender people have some neural tracts that differ from those of cisgender people
Selection Effect
When mids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests
Unisex
The same for males and females. 45/46 of the chromosomes we receive from our parents are unisex
Adolescence
The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Lifespan Perspective
A developmental psychologist’s belief that development is lifelong
Puberty
The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Moral Reasoning
The thinking that occurs as we consider right from wrong
Preconventional Morality
The first level of morality in Kohlberg’s model. Occurs before age 9 and states that morality is based on self-interest. Preconventional children obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
Conventional Morality
The second level of morality in Kohlberg’s model. Occurs during early adolescence and states that morality is based on the desire to uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
Postconventional Morality
The third level of morality in Kohlberg’s model. Occurs during adolescence and beyond and states that our actions reflect our belief in basic rights and seld-defined ethical principles. Kohlberg’s critics have noted that this stage is culturally limited, appearing mostly among people from large societies that prize individualism.
Moral Intuitions
States that the mind quickly and automatically makes moral judgments
Moral reasoning
The thinking that occurs as we consider right from wrong
Intuitionist Perspective
States that morality is a two-track process. It is controlled by emotions and intuition, which therefore influence our moral reasoning.
Delay Gratification
To decline small rewards now for bigger rewards in the future.
Jonathan Haidt
Studied moral intuitions and their effect on moral actions
Identity
Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Social Identity
The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships
Intimacy
In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Infancy
Age: Up to one year
Issue: Trust vs. mistrust
Description: If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Toddlerhood
Age: 1-3 years
Issue: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Description: Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Preschool
Age: 3-6
Issue: Initiative vs. guilt
Description: Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Elementary School
Age: 6-puberty
Issue: Competence vs. inferiority
Description: Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Adolescence
Age: Teens-20s
Issue: Identity vs. role confusion
Description: Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Young Adulthood
Age: 20s-early 40s
Issue: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Description: Young adults struggle to form close relationships and gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Middle Adulthood
Age: 40s-60s
Issue: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Description: Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: Late Adulthood
Age: Late 60s and up
Issue: Integrity vs. despair
Description: Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
Emerging Adulthood
A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
X Chromosome
The sex chromosome found in both males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes, males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child
Y Chromosome
The sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child
Testosterone
The most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty
Primary Sex Characteristics
The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
Spermarche
The first ejaculation
Menarche
The first menstrual period
Intersex
A condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes
AIDS
Also called acquired immune deficiency syndrome. A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections
Sexual Orientation
Our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual attraction) it the other sex (heterosexual attraction); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual attraction)
Pedophilia
A disordered attraction to young boys or girls
Erotic Plasticity
When a person alternates periods of high sexual activity with periods of low or no sexual activity. More common in women
Fraternal Birth-Order Effect
Men with older brothers are more likely to be gay. This may be because, with each pregnancy with a male fetus, the maternal antibodies may become stronger and prevent the fetus’ brain from developing in a male-typical pattern.
Gay-Straight Brain Differences
- One hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than in straight men
- Gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as does straight women’s to the smell of men’s sex-related hormones
Gay-Straight Genetic Influences
- Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins
- Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated
- Male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side of the family
Gay-Straight Prenatal Influences
- Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals
- Men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay, possibly due to a maternal immune-system reaction
Menopause
The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
Telomeres
Tips of chromosomes that wear down with age. As they shorten, aging cells may die without being replaced by perfect replicas. The shortening of telomeres is aggravated by obesity, smoking, and stress
Cross-Sectional Study
Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal Study
Research that follows the same people over time
Terminal Decline
The gradual decline in cognitive function that occurs as a function of time before death
Neurocognitive Disorders (NCDs)
Acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia
Alzheimer’s Disease
A neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities. It is caused by a loss of brain cells and the deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine. Abnormalities in these neurons include: shriveled protein filaments in the cell body and clumps of free-floating protein that accumulates as neural plaque.
Social Clock
The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
