AP Psychology Unit 3: Biological Psychology and Neurotransmission Flashcards
Neuron
A nerve cell; The basic building block of the nervous system
Cell body
The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center
Dendrites
A neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
Axon
The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Myelin Sheath
A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. It is not fully developed until the age of 25 and is very important to behavior, movement, and thought.
Deterioration of the myelin sheath can lead to multiple sclerosis
Glial Cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
Action Potential
A neural impulse; A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (-55 mV)
When excitatory signals outnumber inhibitory signals, the threshold has been reached and an action potential occurs
Refractory Period
In neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
All-or-None Response
A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
Synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the “synaptic gap” or “synaptic cleft”
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
Reuptake
A neurotransmitter’s reabsorption be the sending neuron
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Function: Enables muscle action, learning, and memory
Malfunction: Associated with Alzheimer’s disease or paralysis
Dopamine
Function: Movement, thought process, reward
Malfunction: Oversupply linked to schizophrenia, undersupply linked to Parkinson’s disease
Serotonin
Function: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Malfunction: Undersupply linked to depression and stress. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
Norepinephrine
Function: Physical arousal, learning, and memory
Malfunction: Undersupply can depress mood
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
Function: A major inhibitory neurotransmitter
Malfunction: Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, anxiety disorders, and insomnia
Glutamate
Function: A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
Malfunction: Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures
Endorphins
“morphine within”- natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
Agonist
A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
Antagonist
A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
Nervous System
The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord. It is the decision maker, responsible for coordinating incoming sensory messages and outgoing mmotor messages
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body by gathering information from the senses and transmitting messages from the CNS
Nerves
Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and organs
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
Motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Somatic Nervous System
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
Sympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy (accelerates heartbeat, raises blood pressure, slows digestion, etc…)
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division of the. autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (decelerates heartbeat, lowers blood pressure, stimulates digestion, etc…)
Reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
Endocrine System
The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Adrenal Glands
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
Pituitary Gland
The endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. It is known as the “master gland.”
Secretes growth hormones and Oxytocin
Lesion
Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally cause destruction of brain tissue
EEG
Description: An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
How it works: Electrodes are placed on the scalp to measure electrical activity in neurons
MEG
Description: A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity
How it works: A head coil records magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical currents
CT scan
Description: A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure (also called a CAT scan)
How it works: x-rays of the head generate images that may locate brain damage
PET
Description: A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. Shows activity
How it works: Tracks where a temporarily radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain of the person given it performs a given task
MRI
Description: A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy and are more detailed than CT scans
How it works: People sit or lie down in a chamber that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide a map of brain structure
fMRI
Description: A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function, structure, and damage
How it works: Measures bloodflow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans
Brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. A crossover point where most nerves to and from each side of the brain connect with the body’s opposite side
Medulla
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus
The brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Reticular Formation
A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal and filtering sensory stimuli
Cerebellum
The “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
Limbic System
Neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Amygdala
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion (fear and anger)
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
Hippocampus
A neural cluster located in the limbic system wrapping around the thalamus; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events
Corpus Callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Pons
Helps coordinate movement and control sleep. Located in the brainstem above the medulla
Spinal Cord
Pathway for neural fibers traveling to and from the brain; controls simple reflexes
Cerebral Cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; The body’s ultimate control and information-processing center
Optogenetics
A new tool that uses light to control the activity of individual neurons. This allows scientists to examine the biological bases of fear, small, memory, and various diseases.
Default Network
A set of regions more active during passive tasks than tasks demanding focused external attention. Default networks support mind wandering and daydreaming.
Diffusion Spectrum Imaging
A type of MRI technology that maps long-distance brain fiber connections
Frontal Lobe
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Parietal Lobe
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back/middle of the head; includes areas that receive and process sensory input for touch and body position
Temporal Lobe
The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ear; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Motor Cortex
An area at the rear of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements
Somatosensory Cortex
An area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Association Areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Plasticity
The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons
Split Brain
A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. Cross-transference does not occur
Consciousness
Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. Helps us cope with novelty and act in out best interest
Cognitive Neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Dual Processing
The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Blindsight
A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
Parallel Processing
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or solve easy problems
Sequential Processing
Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
Polarization
The ressting state of the neuron, charge is more positive outside the membrane (Na+) and more negative inside (K-)
Depolarization
The action potential; the rushing in and out of positively charged ions
Repolarization
The refractory period; the closing of the membrane and reestablishing a more negative charge inside
Brain
Comprised of the cortex and subcortical structures carrying out various functions. Nerves arranged into neural networks
Oxytocin
Stimulates the uterine contractions of childbirth and milk secretion during breastfeeding; also promotes pair bonding, group cohesion and trust.
Stimulation
Brain regions are stimulated electrically, chemically, or magnetically and researchers study the impact on functioning
Occipital Lobe
A part of the brain lying at the back of the cerebral cortex that receives visual information, primarily from the opposite visual field
Broca’s Area
Language center located in the left frontal lobe. Involved in expression and the production of language
Wernicke’s Area
Language center located in the left temporal lobe. Involved in receptive language
Left Hemisphere
Involved in speaking and language, math calculations, making literal interpretations, and controlling the right side of the body
Right Hemisphere
Involved in perceptual tasks, making inferences, modulating speech, visual perception, recognition of emotion, and controlling the left side of the body
Behavior Genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Heredity
The genetic transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring
Environment
Every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. We have 46 total - 23 from your mom and 23 from your dad.
DNA
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
Genes
The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
Genome
The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes
Identical (Monozygotic) Twins
Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins
Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment
Heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied
Interaction
The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
Molecular Genetics
The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
Molecular Behavior Genetics
The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior
Epigenetics
“Above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection
Natural Selection
The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Mutation
A random error in gene replication that leads to a change
Social Script
A culturally modled guide for how to act in certain situations
Males
May be more likely to initiate sexual activity. May perceive women’s friendliness for sexual interest.
Females
Tendency toward tall men with slim waists and broad shoulders. May prefer men who are mature, dominant, and bold.
Criticism and Responses of the Evolutionary Perspective on Sexuality
- Start with the effect and work backward to explain what happened.
- Try to explain today’s behavior with decisions made thousands of years ago.
- There are social consequences to accepting evolutionary explanations.
