AP Psychology Unit 14: Social Psychology Flashcards
Social Psychology
The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Attribution Theory
The theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (situational attribution) nor the person’s disposition (dispositional attribution). People are more likely to attribute their own behavior to the situation
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Attitude
Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Peripheral Route Persuasion
Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness. It produces fast results, but does not engage systematic thinking
Central Route Persuasion
Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. It works for people who are naturally analytical and is usually more durable
Foot-in-the Door-Phenomenon
The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. Using this tactic, it is possible to induce somebody to act against their beliefs
Role
A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in that position ought to behave
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort 9dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Norms
Understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior
Chameleon Effect
Nonconscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one’s interaction partners
Mood Contagion
Our tendency to take on the mood of those who surround us
Mood Linkage
The human tendency to absorb and participate in the prevailing mood of the other people around
Positive Herding
When positive ratings/feelings generate more positive ratings/feelings
Conformity
Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
Normative Social Influence
Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. This is a large aspect of humans’ tendency to conform
Informational Social Influence
Influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality
Minority Influence
The power of one or two individuals to sway majorities. It is strengthened when those in the minority have conviction in their beliefs
Social Facilitation
Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. This is due to increased arousal
Social Loafing
The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. This is due to diminished feelings of responsibility
Reasons for Social Loafing
- People feel less accountable for their work
- People view their individual contributions as dispensible
- People overestimate their own contributions
- People slack off if they share equally in the benefits
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. This is due to reduced self-awareness
Behavior in the Presence of Others: Three Phenomena
- Social facilitation
- Social loafing
- Deindividuation
Group Polarization
The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
Groupthink
The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. It is fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification, and group polarization. It can be prevented when a leader welcomes debates/dissenting opinions and encourages people to find issues within a plan.
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Prejudice
An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action
Stereotype
A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
Discrimination
Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
Ethnocentrism
Assuming the superiority of one’s ethnic group
Just-World Phenomenon
The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
Ingroup
“Us” - people with whom we share a common identity
Outgroup
“Them” - Those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
Ingroup Bias
The tendency to favor our own group
Scapegoat Theory
The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
Scapegoat Theory Evidence
- Economically frustrated people tend to experience heightened prejudice
- Experiments that create temporary frustration intensify prejudice
Outgroup Homogeneity
Perceived uniformity of outgroup attitudes, personality, and appearance
Other-Race Effect
The tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect or the own-race bias
Aggression
Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
Monoamine Oxidase A Gene
A gene that helps break down neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin. People with low MAOA gene expression are more aggressive when provoked
Aggression: Genetic Influences
- The Y-Chromosome (men tend to be more aggressive than women)
- The MAOA gene (lower levels equals higher aggression)
Aggression: Neural Influences
- Amygdala activity increases aggression
- Diminished activity in the frontal lobes, which play an important role in controlling impulses, lead to higher aggression
Aggression: Biochemical Influences
- Testosterone is associated with higher levels of aggression
- Alcohol acts as a disinhibitor (slows neural activity), so people may act more rashly under the influence
Frustration-Aggression Principle
The principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression
Social Script
A culturally modeled guide for how to act in certain situations
Proximity
Geographic nearness. It is friendship’s most powerful predictor, since we tend to like things that are familiar to us
Mere Exposure Effect
The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
Elements of Attraction
- Proximity
- Physical attractiveness
- Similarity
Reward Theory of Attraction
We will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, including those who are both able and willing to help us achieve our goals
Passionate Love
An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship
Companionate Love
The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Equity
A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
Self-Disclosure
The act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others
Altruism
Unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Bystander Intervention: The Decision-Making Process
- Notice the incident
- Interpret the incident as an emergency
- Assume responsibility
The likelihood of all of these events occurring decreases when more people are present
Diffusion of Responsibility
A sociopsychological phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when other bystanders or witnesses are present
Bystander Effect
The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Social Exchange Theory
The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Reciprocity Norm
An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
Social-Responsibility Norm
An expectation that people will help those needing their help
Conflict
A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
Social Trap
A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
Mirror-Image Perceptions
Mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and sees the other side as evil and aggressive
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A belief that leads to its own fulfillment
Superordinate Goals
Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - A strategy designed to decrease international tensions. One side first announces its intent to reduce tensions and follows it with small, conciliatory acts. The other side may reciprocate, and the tension will decrease
Philip Zimbardo
Studied humans’ capability to adapt to their prescribed roles in the Stanford Prison Experiment, finding that people quickly adapt to the roles they are made to play
Leon Festinger
Coined cognitive dissonance theory, which helps to explain why people who are forced into certain roles do morally deplorable things.
Solomon Asch
Studied conformity within a group by conducting an experiment in which a group of confederates incorrectly answered a question. The participants in the experiments conformed with the group about 1/3 of the time, showing the power of social influence over our decisions
Stanley Milgrim
Studied humans’ capacity to obey by placing participants in a situation where an authority figure forced them to “hurt” a subject by giving them electrical shocks. Most of the participants obeyed the authority to the end, ultimately delivering a shock that presumably killed the subject.
John Darley and Bibb Latané
Studied how the presence of others impacts how a person reacts to a crisis. They found that a person will help in a situation if they notice the incident, deem it an emergency, and assume responsibility. The probability of a person coming to this conclusion is decreased by the presence of others
Elaboration Likliehood Model
Consists of two types of persuasion. The central route to persuasion focuses on the central qualities of a product and the peripheral route to persuasion focuses on the peripheral qualities of a product
Door-in-the-Face
A technique used to get compliance from others in which a large request is made knowing it will probably be refused so that the person will agree to a much smaller request. The small request is made to seem very reasonable because it is compared to such a large, seemingly unreasonable request.
