AP Psychology Unit 6: Learning Flashcards
Learning
The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Habituation
Decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to stimulus
Associative Learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)
Forms of Conditioning
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
Habituation vs. Sensory Adaptation
Habituation is a type of learning or relatively permanent change in behavior (lower response) that involves a reduced response as a result of repeated but not constant exposure.
Sensory adaptation is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when the brain stops recognizing a constant and unchanging stimulus.
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
Respondent Behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Operant Behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Cognitive Learning
The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Observational Learning
A form of cognitive learning that lets us learn from other experiences
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus. Respondent/automatic behavior
Behaviorism
The view that psychology should (1) be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
Pavlov’s Experiment
Measured the salivation of dogs in response to a beeping noise, which they were made to associate with food. He found that dogs can learn through classical conditioning, as they associated the sound of the buzzer with food.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Unconditioned Response (UR)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned ) stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditional stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
Five Major Conditioning Processes
- Acquisition
- Extinction
- Spontaneous Recovery
- Generalization
- Discrimination
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
Higher-Order Conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts te tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning)
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations)
Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)
Why are Pavlov’s Ideas Important?
- Found that many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms. It is a way that organisms can adapt to their environment
- He showed us how a process like learning can be studied objectively
How Can Pavlov’s Principles Be Applied Today?
- Drug cravings: Addicts are advised to steer away from people who they associate with drug highs
- Food cravings: Overweight people often have conditioned pleasure responses to sugary foods, making dieting difficult
- Immune responses: When a taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste itself may cause an immune reaction
Little Albert
John B. Watson and his graduate assistant
Rosalie Rayner conditioned “Little Albert” to fear a white rat (neutral stimulus) after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. He grew to fear the rat and eventually generalized this fear to dogs and rabbits.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punishment. Voluntary behavior.
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant Chamber
In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Also called “reward by successive approximations”
Discriminative Stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
Positive Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Negative reinforcement is not punishment)
Primary Reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (eating food, relieving pain)
Conditioned Reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
Reinforcement Schedule
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. Once conditioned, animals will pause briefly before returning to a high rate of responding
Variable-Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Highest and most consistent response rate
Fixed-Interval Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. Produces a hoppy stop-start pattern rather than a continuous rate of response
Variable-Interval Schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Produces slow, steady responses, since an animal does not know when the waiting will be over
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
Positive Punishment
Administer an aversive stimulus to discourage behavior
Negative Punishment
Withdraw a rewarding stimulus to discourage behavior
Why is Physical Punishment Ineffective?
- Physically punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten
- Temporary suppression of physically punished behavior may negatively reinforce parents’ punishing behavior
- Physical punishment teaches discrimination among situations
- Physical punishment can teach fear
- Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems
When Can Operant Conditioning Techniques be Applied?
- At school
- In sports
- At work
- At home
- For self-improvement,
- To manage stress.
Operant Conditioning and Superstition
If a positive event happens after performing a certain behavior (wearing a certain shirt), operant conditioning will reinforce that behavior and cause superstitious behavior
Neal Miller
A researcher who worked on biofeedback, finding that rats could modify their heartbeat if given pleasurable brain stimulation
Biofeedback
A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. Works best on tension headaches
Gregory Kimble
Claimed that: “Just about any activity of which the organism is capable can be conditioned and … these responses can be conditioned to any stimulus that the organism can perceive.” He was later proven wrong thanks to the discovery of preparedness and instinctive drift.
Preparedness
A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.
Taste Aversion
A biological tendency in which an organism learns after a single experience to avoid food with a certain taste if eating it is followed by illness. Violates the notion that, for conditioning to occur, the US must immediately follow the CS
Instinctive Drift
The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
Expectancy
An awareness of how likely the US will occur. Organisms react most strongly to a CS when expectancy is high
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have a learned cognitive map of it
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Intrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
Extrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Classical Conditioning - Biological Influences
Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated
Classical Conditioning - Cognitive Influences
Organisms develop an expectation that a CS signals the arrival of a US
Operant Conditioning - Biological Influences
Organisms most easily learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones
Operant Conditioning - Cognitive Influences
Organisms develop an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement
Problem-Focused Coping
Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with the stressor. Occurs when we feel that we have control over the situation
Emotion-Focused Coping
Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction. Occurs when we believe we can not change a situation and can be unhealthy
Personal Control
Our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless. Influences how we cope with various situations
Learned Helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Tyranny of Choice
When a person or animal has too many choices. This can lead to second-guessing and decreased satisfaction with the choice made
External Locus of Control
The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Associated with higher rates of depression and is more common in younger generations
Internal Locus of Control
The perception that we control our own fate. Associated with higher levels of happiness and also known as free will
Self-Control
The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
Overjustification Effect
Occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person’s intrinsic motivation to perform a task.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others (Also called social learning)
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Vicarious Reinforcement
Learning through observation of the consequences of actions for other people. When a learner observes someone they identify with and the role model receives reinforcement, the learner is motivated to imitate the behavior as if they had been reinforced themselves.
Vicarious Punishment
Learning through observation of the consequences of actions for other people. When a learner observes someone they identify with receive punishment for a behavior, the learner is less likely to imitate that behavior
Mirror Neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
Overimitating
When children copy irrelevant adult actions, like stroking a jar with a feather before opening it because they saw an adult doing so
Theory of Mind
A person’s general understanding that the people around them each have their own unique beliefs, perceptions, and desires.
Prosocial Behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
Antisocial Behavior
Patterns of behavior where a person disregards the feelings of others. If they are constantly exposed to antisocial behavior, children will model it
Violence-Viewing Effect
A theory that links desensitization to violence to the people who repeatedly view violent acts in the media and on television. In children, this can lead to an increased risk of aggression in addition to desensitization.
Ivan Pavlov
A behaviorist who conducted experiments on dogs, in which he used classical conditioning principles to spur dogs to salivate whenever a bell was rung
John B. Watson
A behaviorist who thought that psychology should discount cognitive processes, Led the Little Albert experiment, where he conditioned an 11-month old boy to fear a white rat
B.F. Skinner
A behaviorist who experimented with the operant chamber (Skinner box), conditioning animals to perform certain behaviors for rewards
Edward L. Thorndike
Founded a principle called the “law of effect,” which served as the basis for Skinner’s work in operant conditioning
John Garcia
Contributed to learning theory through his theory of taste aversion, which disproved the notion that a US must immediately follow a CS
Robert Rescorla
Conducted an experiment with rats that showed that animals can react to the predictability of an event, for they reacted more strongly to a CS that more often preceded the US
Edward C. Tolman
Conducted studies that showed that animals can create cognitive maps of places a form of latent learning
Albert Bandura
Demonstrated the phenomenon of observational learning/modeling in his experiment with Bobo dolls
