AP Psychology Unit 2: Research Methods - Thinking Critically with Psychologial Science Flashcards
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (Also known as the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon)
Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally-occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Sample Biases
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each number has an equal chance of inclusion
Overconfidence
Our tendency to think we know more than we actually do
Random sequences
Random sequences don’t always look random but we want to percieve patterns to create a safe environment/maintain homeostasis
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Operational definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.
How can we test hypothesis and refine theories?
- Descriptive methods
- Correlational methods
- Experimental methods
What are the descriptive methods?
- Case studies
- Naturalistic observation
- Surveys/interviews
Case study
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Strengths of case studies
- Allow for examination of rare or unusual behavior.
- Provide a large amount of qualitative data.
- Suggest directions for further study.
Limitations of case studies
- Atypical case studies can be misleading.
- Results from one study may not be generalizable to the larger group.
- Cannot determine cause and effect.
Naturalistic observation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
Naturalistic observation strengths
- Subjects behave “normally” outside of a lab setting.
- Data collection is unobtrusive (doesn’t disturb the subject).
Naturalistic observation limitations
- Independent variable cannot be isolated.
- Cannot determine cause and effect.
- Observations by researchers may be subjective.
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Survey strengths
- Able to take a “quick pulse” of people’s beliefs, behaviors or opinions
- Able to include many cases
Survey limitations
- Response bias
- Wording effects can skew the outcomes
- Acquiring a random sample is difficult
- Cannot determine cause and effect
Representative sample
A representative sample has the same distribution of demographic qualities in it as the population as a whole.
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
Random sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other.
Positive Correlation
Two sets of data tend to rise or fall together
Negative Correlation
One set of data rises while the other falls
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00)
Variable
Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
Scatter Plots
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the positive or negative direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
Illusory Correlations
Perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.
Regression to the Mean
The tendency for extreme scores or events to fall back toward the average.
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Group
In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; Contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
Random Sampling
Choosing a representative sample of the population being studied.
Single-Blind Experiment
The participants in the study are uninformed about the treatment, if any, they are receiving. Controls for subject response bias and placebo effect.
Double-Blind Experiment
The participants and the researcher are uninformed about which group receives the treatment and which does not. Controls for experimenter and subject bias as well as placebo effect.
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused bu expectations alone; Any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance ot condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; The variable whose effect is being studied
Confounding Variable
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence the study’s results
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the outsome that is measured; The variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Validity
The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do
Descriptive Method
To observe and record behavior. Descrpitive studies include case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys. Nothing is manipulated.
Descriptive Method Weaknesses
No control of variables, single cases may be misleading
Correlational Method
To detect naturally occurring relationships; To assess how well one variable picks another. Correlational studies warrant the collection of data on two or more variables without manipulation.
Correlational Method Weaknesses
Cannot specify cause and effect
Experimental Method
To explore cause and effect. Experimental research happens when a researcher manipulates one or more factors and uses random assignment. The independent variable is manipulated.
Experimental Method Weaknesses
Sometimes not feasible; Results may not generalize to other contexts; Sometimes it is not ethical to manipulate certain variables
Informed Consent
Giving participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Deception
In some experiments, the true purpose cannot be revealed because it would influence the results.
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of the study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Descriptive Statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation
Histogram
A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Mean
The arithmatic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores
Median
The middle score in a distribution; Half the scores are above it and half are below it
Skewed Distribution
A representation of scores that lacks symmetry around their average value
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. A crude measurement of variation.
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve (normal distribution)
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; Most scores fall near the mean (68% of scores fall within 1 standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes
Inferential Statistics
Numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Statistical Significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Reliability
When research can be replicated/is consistent
Stratified Sampling
A process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria (such as racial composition)
Demand Characteristics
Cues about the purpose of a study
Counterbalancing
When different sets of participants get all of the conditions of the study in different orders so that order effects are accounted for
Order Effects
When the order in which a group experiences an experiment affects its outcome
Ex-Post Facto Study
A method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable
Z-Scores
Measure the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation
