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AP Psychology > AP Psychology Unit 2: Research Methods - Thinking Critically with Psychologial Science > Flashcards

AP Psychology Unit 2: Research Methods - Thinking Critically with Psychologial Science Flashcards

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1
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (Also known as the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon)

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2
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally-occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

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3
Q

Survey

A

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

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4
Q

Sample Biases

A

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

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5
Q

Population

A

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

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6
Q

Random Sample

A

A sample that fairly represents a population because each number has an equal chance of inclusion

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7
Q

Overconfidence

A

Our tendency to think we know more than we actually do

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8
Q

Random sequences

A

Random sequences don’t always look random but we want to percieve patterns to create a safe environment/maintain homeostasis

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9
Q

Theory

A

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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10
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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11
Q

Operational definition

A

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

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12
Q

How can we test hypothesis and refine theories?

A
  1. Descriptive methods
  2. Correlational methods
  3. Experimental methods
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13
Q

What are the descriptive methods?

A
  1. Case studies
  2. Naturalistic observation
  3. Surveys/interviews
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14
Q

Case study

A

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

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15
Q

Strengths of case studies

A
  1. Allow for examination of rare or unusual behavior.
  2. Provide a large amount of qualitative data.
  3. Suggest directions for further study.
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16
Q

Limitations of case studies

A
  1. Atypical case studies can be misleading.
  2. Results from one study may not be generalizable to the larger group.
  3. Cannot determine cause and effect.
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17
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

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18
Q

Naturalistic observation strengths

A
  1. Subjects behave “normally” outside of a lab setting.
  2. Data collection is unobtrusive (doesn’t disturb the subject).
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19
Q

Naturalistic observation limitations

A
  1. Independent variable cannot be isolated.
  2. Cannot determine cause and effect.
  3. Observations by researchers may be subjective.
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20
Q

Survey

A

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

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21
Q

Survey strengths

A
  1. Able to take a “quick pulse” of people’s beliefs, behaviors or opinions
  2. Able to include many cases
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22
Q

Survey limitations

A
  1. Response bias
  2. Wording effects can skew the outcomes
  3. Acquiring a random sample is difficult
  4. Cannot determine cause and effect
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23
Q

Representative sample

A

A representative sample has the same distribution of demographic qualities in it as the population as a whole.

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24
Q

Population

A

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

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25
Q

Random sample

A

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

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26
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other.

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27
Q

Positive Correlation

A

Two sets of data tend to rise or fall together

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28
Q

Negative Correlation

A

One set of data rises while the other falls

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29
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00)

30
Q

Variable

A

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

31
Q

Scatter Plots

A

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the positive or negative direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

32
Q

Illusory Correlations

A

Perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

33
Q

Regression to the Mean

A

The tendency for extreme scores or events to fall back toward the average.

34
Q

Experiment

A

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

35
Q

Experimental Group

A

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

36
Q

Control Group

A

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; Contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

37
Q

Random Assignment

A

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

38
Q

Random Sampling

A

Choosing a representative sample of the population being studied.

39
Q

Single-Blind Experiment

A

The participants in the study are uninformed about the treatment, if any, they are receiving. Controls for subject response bias and placebo effect.

40
Q

Double-Blind Experiment

A

The participants and the researcher are uninformed about which group receives the treatment and which does not. Controls for experimenter and subject bias as well as placebo effect.

41
Q

Placebo Effect

A

Experimental results caused bu expectations alone; Any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance ot condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent

42
Q

Independent Variable

A

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; The variable whose effect is being studied

43
Q

Confounding Variable

A

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence the study’s results

44
Q

Dependent Variable

A

In an experiment, the outsome that is measured; The variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

45
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do

46
Q

Descriptive Method

A

To observe and record behavior. Descrpitive studies include case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys. Nothing is manipulated.

47
Q

Descriptive Method Weaknesses

A

No control of variables, single cases may be misleading

48
Q

Correlational Method

A

To detect naturally occurring relationships; To assess how well one variable picks another. Correlational studies warrant the collection of data on two or more variables without manipulation.

49
Q

Correlational Method Weaknesses

A

Cannot specify cause and effect

50
Q

Experimental Method

A

To explore cause and effect. Experimental research happens when a researcher manipulates one or more factors and uses random assignment. The independent variable is manipulated.

51
Q

Experimental Method Weaknesses

A

Sometimes not feasible; Results may not generalize to other contexts; Sometimes it is not ethical to manipulate certain variables

52
Q

Informed Consent

A

Giving participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

53
Q

Deception

A

In some experiments, the true purpose cannot be revealed because it would influence the results.

54
Q

Debriefing

A

The post-experimental explanation of the study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

55
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

56
Q

Histogram

A

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

57
Q

Mode

A

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

58
Q

Mean

A

The arithmatic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores

59
Q

Median

A

The middle score in a distribution; Half the scores are above it and half are below it

60
Q

Skewed Distribution

A

A representation of scores that lacks symmetry around their average value

61
Q

Range

A

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. A crude measurement of variation.

62
Q

Standard Deviation

A

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

63
Q

Normal Curve (normal distribution)

A

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; Most scores fall near the mean (68% of scores fall within 1 standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes

64
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

Numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

65
Q

Statistical Significance

A

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

66
Q

Reliability

A

When research can be replicated/is consistent

67
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

A process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria (such as racial composition)

68
Q

Demand Characteristics

A

Cues about the purpose of a study

69
Q

Counterbalancing

A

When different sets of participants get all of the conditions of the study in different orders so that order effects are accounted for

70
Q

Order Effects

A

When the order in which a group experiences an experiment affects its outcome

71
Q

Ex-Post Facto Study

A

A method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable

72
Q

Z-Scores

A

Measure the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation

AP Psychology (16 decks)

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