AP Psychology Exam Terms PART 2 Flashcards
All the vocab needed for the 2024 AP Psychology Exam on May 9.
Stroboscopic movement
Motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images.
Interposition
Overlapping images appear closer.
Relative Size
2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away.
Relative Clarity
Hazy objects appear further away.
Texture Gradient
Coarser (rough) objects are closer.
Relative Height
Things higher in our field of vision look further away.
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines are converged (tend to meet) with distance (think railroad tracks). THINK OF THE ROAD DRAWINGS YOU MADE AS A KID WHERE THE ROAD GETS SMALLER WHEN THE LINES GET CLOSER TOGETHER AT THE TOP OF THE PAGE.
Retinal Disparity
Image is cast slightly different on each retinal location of image helps us determine depth.
Convergence
Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer. CROSS-EYED.
Outer Ear
Ear, Auditory canal.
Middle Ear
Ear drum, HAS bones that vibrate to send signal.
Inner Ear
Cochlea (sounds 1st processed here).
Theories of Hearing occur where?
In the COCHLEA.
Place theory
Location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches).
Frequency theory
Rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches).
Pain -> Gate-Control theory
We have to “gate” to control how much pain is experienced.
Kinesthetic
Sense of body position.
Vestibular
A sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear affect this).
Taste (gustation)
5 taste receptors:
1. Bitter
2 Salty
3. Sweet
4. Sour
5. Umami (savory)
Smell (olfaction)
Only sense that does NOT route through the Thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal Lobe and Amygdala.
Figure/ground
Organize information into figures object (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground).
Closure
Tendency to mentally fill in gaps.
TO CLOSE.
Proximity
Tendency to group things together that appear near each other.
APPROXIMATELY THIS CLOSE TO EACH OTHER.
Similarity
Tendency to group things together based on looks.
“They look similar because of their clothes.”
Continuity
Tendency to mentally form a continuous line.
CONTINUING THE LINE.
Beta Waves
Awake.
Alpha Waves
High amp drowsy.
Stage 1
Usually lasts between 1 and 5 minutes and occupies approximately 2-5% of a normal night of sleep.
Consists mostly of theta waves (high amplitude, low frequency).
LIGHT SLEEP.
Stage 2
Occupies approximately 45%-60% of sleep.
BURSTS OF SLEEP SPINDLES.
Stage 3
Delta Waves: Deep sleep
- lasts 15-30 minutes
- called “slow wave” sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically from the “theta” rhythm of stage 2 to a much slower rhythm called “Delta.”
- Delta sleep is the deepest stage of sleep and occupies up to 40% of all children.
Stage 4
Extremely deep sleep
- similar to stage 3
- Delta and slow wave are most used terms to describe this deep, slow sleep
- a sleep deprived person’s brain craves Delta sleep
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) - Stage 5
ACTIVE STAGE OF SLEEP
- composes 20-255 of a normal night’s sleep
- Breathing, heart rate and the brain wave activity quicken
- Vivid dreams can occur
- lasts longer throughout the night
FROM REM SLEEP YOU GO BACK TO STAGE 2.
Freud’s Unconscious Wish Fulfillment
Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs.
Activation Synthesis
The brain produces random bursts of energy - stimulating lodged memories. Dreams start randomly, then develop meaning.
Psychoactive Drugs
Triggers dopamine release in the brain.
Depressants
Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics), Decrease sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive.
Stimulants
Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine, Increase sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive.
Hallucinogens
LSD, Marijuana - Causes hallucinations, not very addictive.
Tolerance
Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects.
Dependence
Become addicted to the drug - must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
Withdrawal
Psychological and physiological symptoms associated with sudden stoppage.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Brings about response without needing to be learned (food).
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Response that naturally occurs without training (salivate).
Neutral Response (NS)
Stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Once neutral stimulus that now brings about a response (bell).
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response that, after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate).
Contiguity
Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented immediately BEFORE the US.
Acquisition
Process of learning the response pairing.
Extinction
Previously conditioned response dies out over time.
Spontaneous Recovery
After a period of time, the CR comes back out of nowhere.
Generalization
CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell).
Discrimination
CR to ONLY the CS.
Operant Conditioning
SKINNER!!!!
Classical Conditioning
IVAN PAVLOV!!!!
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, negative outcomes weaken a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding something nice to increase a behavior (gold star for turning in HW).
Negative Reinforcement
Taking something bad/annoying away to increase a behavior (put on the seatbelt to take away annoying car signal).
Positive Punishment
Add something bad to decrease a behavior (spanking).
Negative Punishment
Take away something good to decrease a behavior (take away car keys).
Primary Reinforcers
Innately satisfying (food and water).
Secondary Reinforcers
Everything else (stickers, high-fives).
Token Reinforcer
Type of secondary reinforcer - can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money).
Generalization
Respond to similar stimulus for reward.
Discrimination
Stimulus signals when behavior will or will not be reinforced (light on means response are accepted).
Extinction/Spontaneous Recovery
Same as Classical conditioning.
Overjustification Effect
Reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating causes you to stop doing them (give a child $5 for reading when they already like to read - they stop reading).
Shaping
Use successive approximations to train behavior (reward desired behaviors to teach a response - rat basketball).
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Reward every _ number of responses (every 10 envelopes stuffed get $$).
Fixed Interval Schedule
Reward every _ amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get a paycheck).
Variable Ratio Schedule
Rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine)
Variable Interval Schedule
Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (fishing).
Variable Schedules are most resistant to what?
EXTINCTION!
Method of Loci
Using locations to remember a list of items in order.
Context of dependent memory
Where you learn the info you best remember the info.
Storage
Retaining info over time.
Information Processing Model
Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model.
Sensory Memory
Stores all incoming stimuli that you received (first you have to pay attention). INVOLVES THE FIVE SENSES.
Iconic Memory
Visual memory, last 0.3 seconds.
Echoic Memory
Auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds.
Short Term Memory
Info passes from sensory memory to short term memory - lasts 30 seconds and can remember about 7 items.
Long Term Memory
Memory that can be stored for a sustained period of time.
Rehearsal
Repeating the information.
Resets the clock… recently rehearsed items move up the clock for how long it will be remembered.
Semantic Memory
Long term memory from meaning, understanding, and conceptual facts.
Implicit Memory
(Nondeclarative) - unconscious recollection of memory.
Priming
Info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on.
Procedural
Skills + Memory Organization
Hierarchies
Memory is stored according to a hierarchy.
Schemas
Preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant). MEMORY STORAGE.
Cerebellum
For procedural memories.
Long-term potentiation
Neutral basis of memory - connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons).
Retrieval
Taking info out of storage.
Serial Position Effect
Tendency to remember the beginning and the end of the list best.
Recall
Remember what you’ve been told without cues.
Recognition
Remember what you’ve been told without cues (MC).
Flashbulb memories
Particularly vivid memories for highly important events (9/11 attacks).
Repressed memories
unconsciously buried memories - are unreliable.
Encoding failure
Forget info because you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place.
Forgetting curve
Recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS).
Proactive interference
Old information blocks new information.
Retroactive interference
New info blocks old information.
Misinformation effect
Distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (Loftus - lost in the mall, Disneyland).
Anterograde Amnesia
Information moves forward (forget new info - 50 first dates).
Retrograde Amnesia
Amnesia moves backwards (forget old info).
Alzheimer’s Disease
Caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus.
Parkinson’s Disease
Loss of dopamine.
Multiple Sclerosis
Myelin Sheath degenerates.
Phonemes
Smallest unit of sound (ch sound in chat).
Morpheme
Smallest unit that carries meaning (syllable).
Grammar
Rules in a language that enable us to communicate.
Semantics
Set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding -ed makes something past tense).
Syntax
Rules for combining words into sentences.
Babbling Stage
Infants babble 1st stage of speech.
Operant Conditioning
Reinforced for language use.
Inborn Universal Grammar
Theory comes from NOAM CHOMSKY
- says that language is innate and we are predisposed to learn it.
Critical Period
Period of time where something must be learned or else it cannot ever happen (language must be learned young - Genie the Wild Child).
Linguistic Determinism
Language influences the way we think.
Developed by WHORF.
Concepts
Mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics.
Prototypes
All instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example (what you first think of).
Algorithims
Step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula).
