Antarctica (and knowledge test part 2) Flashcards
Antarctic convergence zone:
Warmer sub-Antarctic and colder Antarctic water’s meet > upwelling of warm water returns nutrients to the surface > increased photosynthesis > high primary productivity
Antarctic circumpolar current:
Surface current which flows eastward around Antarctica and blocks warmer waters travelling south
Isostatic depression:
Sinking of crust into the asthenosphere due to heavy weight of glacial ice.
Why is the antarctic convergence zone important?
Creates a zone of high primary productivity by returning unusable nutrients to the surface [1].
What is the Precipitation?
low - less than 50mm per year.
Katabatic winds:
strong downhill flowing winds (highlands radiate heat and cool > more dense)
What is the temperature like?
Low (average -49C)
What are the benefits/not damages of tourism?
Raise awareness of need for conservation (Scott Polar Research Institute)
it is expensive and generally tourists do little damage > research suggests seals and penguins not affected
95% of landing sites are not damaged
What are the damages of tourism?
pollution - MV Explorer sinking and oil spills; Mount Erebus Air Crash
evidence breeding sites of birds near Antarctic bases disturbed
potential sources of damage: waste (slow decomposition)
Why is tourism one of the best ways to protect Antarctica?
Raise awareness of need for conservation (Scott Polar Research Institute)
What are the threats that climate change pose to Antarctica?
Give evidence
Western sea ice shrinking (+3C)
changing sea ice conditions > changes distribution of penguin colonies > adelie/emperor down and chinstrap up
less sea ice > less under ice shelf algae > declining Krill numbers (down 80% since 1970s)
sea level rise (globally up 3mm since 1990)
ocean acidification > damage to plankton/marine snails > impact on food web
What are the threats that fishing and whaling pose to Antarctica?
(Give evidence)
Whales decreased from 275, 000 prior to 19th century > 2000 1964
whaling has slowed due to IWC/IWM but does still continue
long-line fishing > species such as Patagonian toothfish endangered
depletion of Krill
Give 3 reasons why Antarctica may be more at risk from the search for minerals in the future?
increasing population/development > increased demand
technological advances
melting sea ice increasing accessibility
> making mining economically viable.
What is the International convention for the regulation of Whaling?
complete protection of certain whale species; designated areas as whale sanctuaries in Southern ocean; limits on numbers and size of whales.
What is the International Whaling Moratorium ?
ban on commercial whaling.
What are the strengths of the moratorium?
decreased levels of whaling
allowed whale stocks to recover/preventing extinction
increased the social and political costs of whaling
What are the weaknesses of the moratorium?
agreements on the moratorium require a majority vote (¾) (equal pro/con members so unlikely)
voluntary - can exempt yourself by lodging a complaint: Russia objected; Norway/Iceland continue to whale
loophole of scientific whaling exploited (Japan’s use of lethal methods - was approx. 1000 per year prior to tsunami)
aboriginal hunting continues in US (not commercial)
IWC doesn’t inspect of register whaling boasts so difficult to monitor
unclear if the southern ocean ecosystem will return to conditions prior to whaling
no monitoring of whale numbers by the IWC makes it difficult to truly estimate impact
What is the Antarctic treaty system?
should be used for peaceful purposes; should cooperate on/share scientific research; remain a global common
What are the positives of the ATS?
Set aside territorial claims
successful disarmament regime
What are the negatives of the ATS?
freezes territorial claims but doesn’t negate them
consensus needed so slow (failure to implement Antarctic Marine reserves)
bio-prospecting
growing superpowers ignore agreed regulations
no enforcement/policing system (need to take to ICJ)
no permanent population so each base is subject to governments on legal system
What is the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition?
group of 30 NGOs.
What are the strengths of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition?
campaigned to make Antarctic Treaty meetings more transparent
monitor environmental changes e.g. krill and whaling population levels
blocked the convention for the regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (would have allowed mining)
raise awareness of environmental issues e.g. ‘Krill gotten gains’ - Greenpeace [1]; campaigned to ensure enforcement e.g. Australia taking Japan to court
no bias e.g. in exploiting areas
essential to ensuring the success of international agreements
What are the negatives of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition?
cannot make a direct impact
more difficult to gain international governments attention
What is the Protocol on Environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty?
nature reserve; all activities must have an environmental impact assessment; bans mining
What are the strengths of the Protocol on Environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty?
protects the global common for damage
prevents the tragedy of commons - mining
What are the negatives of the Protocol on Environmental protection to the Antarctic Treaty?
ban on mining prohibition in 2048 could be overturned (if 75% of parties agree) [
environmental audits are mainly of bases onland and not those in maritime areas [1]
Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources:
an agreement to manage the exploitation and development of Antarctica’s non-renewable resources - did not pass [1].
International Association of Tour Operators:
self-regulates tourism in Antarctica e.g. guidelines: limite numbers of visitors taken ashore; encourage conservation talks; prohibits leaving waste
What is the United Nations Environment Programme:
UN agency governings the world’s environment reports Antarctic activity to the UN
What are the strengths of the United Nations Environment Programme:
discuss questions of Antarctica on a global scale
What are the negatives of the United Nations Environment Programme:
relies on voluntary donations
part of the general assembly so lacks decision making/direct impact
relies on environment ministers who lack political clout
International laws:
legally binding rules established through international agreements
International norms:
accepted standards of behaviour
International institutions:
political and legal organisations that pass laws/discuss issues/disputes on an international scale e.g. UN and WTO.
Give 5 environmental impacts of increasing interdependence and globalisation?
increased pressure on finite resources/depletion of non-renewables
increased transportation (greenhouse effect)
outsourcing to countries with less strict environmental standards
more waste e.g. due to increased packaging from trade
IMF forced spending cuts reduced environmental spending
higher risk of invasive species
What are the positive social impacts of increasing interdependence and globalisation?
Greater access to foreign culture
increased awareness of global events
What are the negative social impacts of increasing interdependence and globalisation?
loss of cultural diversity
spread of propaganda
Where are the apple headquarters?
Apple Campus, Cupertino, California.
