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biology > animal responses > Flashcards

animal responses Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two subdivisions of the human nervous system

A

central nervous system (CNS) - includes brain and spinal chord
and Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - includes all neurones that lie outside the CNS

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2
Q

what are most neurones within the CNS

A

relay/ intermediate neurons

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3
Q

how are the PNS’s axons and dendrons arranged?

A

in bundles / nerves

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4
Q

what is the autonomic nervous system responsible for?

A
  • many homeostatic mechanisms
  • controlling heightened responses (stress response)
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5
Q

what are nerves?

A

bundles containing the PNS’s axons and dendrons

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6
Q

what are features of autonomic neurones

A
  • non-myelinated
  • connections to effectors - consists of TWO neurones (in series)
  • two neurones connected at a swelling (ganglion)

sympathetic and parasympathetic

effectors:
smooth muscle
cardiac muscle
exocrine glands

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7
Q

what are features of somatic neurones

A

myelinated
connections to effectors - consist of ONE neurone

effectors:
- voluntary/ skeletal muscle

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8
Q

what is the structure of sympathetic nervous system

A

many nerves
pre-ganglionic axons SHORT
ganglion - just outside nervous system
post-ganglionic axons LONG

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9
Q

what is the structure of the parasympathetic nervous system

A

pre-ganglionic axons - very long
ganglion - on the organ
post-ganglionic axons - very short

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10
Q

what is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system

A

return the body to rest
“rest and digest”

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11
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

prepares the body for action
“fight or flight”

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12
Q

what are some examples of the effects of the sympathetic NS

A
  • increased heart rate
  • pupil dilation
  • increased ventilation rate
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13
Q

what are some examples of the effects of the parasympathetic NS

A
  • decreased heart rate
  • pupil dilation
  • decreased ventilation rate
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14
Q

what does the cerebrum do

A

all higher order processes
- thinking
- planning
- language
- memory
- emotions

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15
Q

what does the hypothalamus control

A
  • control of the autonomic nervous system
  • control of some endocrine glands
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16
Q

what are the main features of the cerebrum

A
  • largest part of the human brain
  • divided into cerebral hemispheres (right and left)
    2 hemispheres are linked by the corpus callosum (white matter)
  • highly developed in humans
    outer layer = cerebral cortex (grey matter)
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17
Q

what does the medulla oblongata control?

A

control of breathing
heart rate
smooth muscle

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18
Q

what does the medulla oblongata contain

A
  • respiration centre
  • cardiac centre
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19
Q

how does the hypothalamus bring about responses

A
  • through the autonomic nervous system
  • through controlling secretions of the pituitary gland
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20
Q

what are features of reflex actions

A
  • do not involve any processing
  • short nervous pathway
  • two/three neurones - sensory, motor and sometimes relay
  • brain may be involved after action has happened
  • survival value
  • danger
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21
Q

describe the knee jerk reflex

A
  • spinal reflex - passes through the spinal chord
  • only two neurones involved (sensory and motor)
  • no relay so can’t be inhibited
  • quicker helps with coordinated movement and balance
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22
Q

what physiological changes might occur during a fight or flight response

A
  • blood pressure increases
  • vasodilation
  • increased blood glucose concentration (more glycogenolysis)
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23
Q

how are fight or flight responses coordinated

A

by the hypothalamus
- activates sympathetic NS - activates adrenal medulla
- secretion of adrenaline into blood stream

and
sympathetic nervous system
impulses activate glands and smooth muscles

and
hypothalamus
- secretes releasing hormones to stimulate pituitary gland
CRH - pituitary secretes ACTH - adrenal cortex secretes corticoid hormones
TRH - pituitary secretes TSH - thyroid gland secretes thyroxine

24
Q

how does the heart adapt to supply more O2 and glucose and remove CO2

A
  • increased heart rate
  • increased stroke volume
  • increased strength of contractions
25
Q

what is the cardiovascular centre

A

a specific part of the medulla oblongata - receives sensory inputs about levels of physical activity, blood CO2 concentration and blood pressure

26
Q

where are stretch receptors (proprioreceptors) found and what do they detect

A

in muscles
detect movement in muscles

27
Q

where are chemoreceptors and what do they detect

A

carotid artery, aorta, medulla oblongata
detects changes in pH e.g. pH falls as CO2 rises

28
Q

where are pressure receptors (baroreceptors) found and what do they detect

A

carotid artery and aorta
detects changes in blood pressure

29
Q

what is the neurotransmitter for sympathetic NS

A

noradrenaline

30
Q

what is the neurotransmitter for the parasympathetic NS

A

acetylcholine

31
Q

what are the three types of muscle

A
  • cardiac
  • involuntary/ smooth
  • voluntary/ skeletal
32
Q

what is the structure of cardiac muscle

A
  • striated (stripy)
  • branched fibres
  • powerful contraction
  • doesn’t fatigue (no lactic acid)
  • respires fatty acids (mainly)
  • can’t respire anaerobically (or very little)
33
Q

what are intercalated discs

A

cell membranes which fuse to give a gap junction, allow free diffusion of ions
action potentials travel very quickly
- depolarisation - influx of Na+

34
Q

what is the structure of involuntary/ smooth muscle

A

autonomic - either para or sympathetic
- not striated/ stripy
- single nucleus
- small bundles of actin and myosin
- contraction is slow

35
Q

what is a
sarcomere

A

a functional unit of striated muscle the distance from one adjacent Z line to the next (centre of each light band)

36
Q

what is the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fibres called?

A

sarcolemma

37
Q

define sarco-

A

muscle

38
Q

what are the two types of protein that make up myofibrils

A

actin - the thinner filament - two strands twisted around
and
myosin - the thicker filament - long rod-shaped fibres with bulbous heads that project to one side

39
Q

what are the light bands in myofibrils

A

I (isotopic) bands
actin and myosin don’t overlap
actin not covered by myosin

40
Q

what are the dark bands in myofibrils

A

A-bands
darker due to presence of thick myosin filaments
edges darker as as myosin overlapped with actin

just myosin

41
Q

what is the z-line in myofibrils

A

found at the centre of each light band (I-band)
distance between adjacent z-lines = sarcomere

where actin filaments meet

42
Q

what is the H zone in myofibrils

A

the lighter coloured region found in the centre of each dark band. only myosin filaments present

myosin not covered by actin

43
Q

what happens to the H-zone and sarcomere when muscles contract

A

shorten/ decreases as muscle contracts

44
Q

what should you be able to identify in microscopic sample of skeletal muscle

A
  • individual muscle fibres
  • highly structured arrangements of sarcomeres which appear as dark (A) bands and light (I) bands
  • streaks of connective and adipose tissue
  • capillaries running between the fibres
45
Q

define the sliding filament model and list the results

A

during contraction the myosin filaments pull the actin filaments inwards towards the centre of the sarcomere

resulting in:
- light band becoming narrower
- the z-lines moving closer together, shortening the sarcomere
- the H-zone becoming narrower

46
Q

describe the structure of myosin

A
  • have globular heads that are hinged which allows them to move backwards and forwards.
  • on the head is a binding site for each of actin and ATP.
  • the tails of several hundred myosin molecules are aligned together to form the myosin filament
47
Q

describe the
structure of actin

A
  • made of two strands of F actin wrapped around
  • each strand contain:
  • G actin - globular protein subunits
  • tropomyosin - rod shaped protein
  • troponin - complex of 3 polypeptides
    one binds to G actin
    one binds to tropomyosin
    one binds to calcium
  • binding sites for myosin heads
    – often blocked by protein tropomyosin
48
Q

what are the features of voluntary (skeletal) muscle

A

striated
powerful contraction
fatigues quickly
can respire anaerobically for a short time

49
Q

what is a neuromuscular junction

A

the synapse between a muscle and a motor neurone

50
Q

what is a motor unit

A

branches of one motor neurone and the muscle cells it stimulates

51
Q

what is another way the body can generate ATP

A

using the chemical - creatine phosphate - stored in muscle.
creatine adds the phosphate to ADP to form ATP

52
Q

what are the pro and con with using creatine phosphate

A

pro: generates ATP rapidly
con: store of phosphate is used up quickly

when muscles are relaxed, creating phosphate store replenished

53
Q

how are myofibrils arranged?

A

one thick filament (myosin) is surrounded by 6 thin filaments (actin)

54
Q

what is the in depth process of the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction (4 steps)

A
  1. myosin head attaches to actin forming a cross-bridge as Pi released
  2. ADP released - head bends, power stroke, thin filament pulled along
  3. cross-bridge broken as new ATP attaches to myosin head

4 ATP is hydrolysed to ADP and Pi causing head to move backwards.

55
Q

what are the 2 essential factors for muscle contraction?

A
  • Ca^2+ available
    and ATP available
56
Q

what is the role of the Ca^2+ in muscle contraction

A

when muscle is relaxed, tropomyosin and troponin block the binding site for myosin head

when muscle contracts,
Ca^2+ binds to troponin
troponin changes shape
moves tropomyosin away
allows myosin head to bind to actin

biology (24 decks)

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