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biology > chapter 12 - communicable diseases > Flashcards

chapter 12 - communicable diseases Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

define disease

A

a condition that impairs the normal functioning of an organism. both plants an animals can get diseases

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2
Q

define pathogen

A

a (micro)organism that causes a disease - often called a microbe

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3
Q

what are communicable diseases

A

diseases that spread between organisms

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4
Q

what are the 4 types of pathogen

A

fungi, bacteria, protoctista (protista) and viruses

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5
Q

how do fungi cause disease

A

some fungi are parasitic so they feed off of living plants and animals. (saprophytic digestion)
produce millions of spores allowing them to spread rapidly throughout crop plants.
stop plants from photosynthesising

some fungi produce toxins which effect host cells

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6
Q

how do viruses cause disease

A
  1. virus attaches to cell
  2. viral DNA injected into cell
  3. viral components assembled, viral nucleic acid is replicated and proteins are synthesised
    4.viruses released, death/ bursting of cell
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7
Q

how do bacteria cause disease

A

bacteria produce toxins that poison or damage host cells
either destroying cell membranes, cell walls or genetic information so the host cell cannot reproduce

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8
Q

what is the name for the collection of hyphae on fungi

A

mycelium

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9
Q

tuberculosis
organism effected:
pathogen type:

A

animals
bacterial

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10
Q

bacterial meningitis
organisms effected:
pathogen type:

A

humans
bacterial

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11
Q

ring rot
organism effected
pathogen type

A

potatoes and tomatoes
bacterial

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12
Q

HIV/AIDS
organism effected
pathogen type

A

humans
viral

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13
Q

influenza
organism effected
pathogen type

A

animals
viral

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14
Q

malaria
organism effected
pathogen type

A

animals
protoctist

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15
Q

late blight
organism effected
pathogen type

A

potatoes and tomatoes
protoctist

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16
Q

black sigatoka
organism effected
pathogen type

A

banana plants
fungal

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17
Q

ring worm
organism effected
pathogen type

A

cattle
fungal

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18
Q

athletes foot
organism effected
pathogen type

A

humans
fungal

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19
Q

what are examples of direct spread of disease

A

droplet infection (coughing or sneezing)
sexual intercourse
touching

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20
Q

what are examples of indirect spread of disease

A

intermediate eg. air, water, food, surfaces or another organism (vector)

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21
Q

what factors can effect the spread of disease

A

social :
overcrowding, poor health and nutrition
poor education of health , culture and infrastructure - some countries traditional medical practices can increase transmission

climate:
potato/tomato blight is most common in WET SUMMERS
malaria most common in TROPICAL COUNTRIES

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22
Q

how does climate change effect the spread of disease

A

results in changing environments which can lead to new vectors and disease in different areas

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23
Q

what are some physical plant defences

A

thick waxy cuticle: physical barrier + waterproof
cell wall - physical barrier + contains chemicals
callose - polysaccharide deposited between cell walls and membranes when plant is infected
prevents pathogens entering cells - blocks phloem sieve plates - stop spread of pathogen

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24
Q

what are some chemical plant defences

A

produce antimicrobial chemicals which kill or inhibit the growth of pathogens
e.g. saponins destroy the membranes of fungi

produce chemicals that are toxic to insect pests eg. vectors

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25
Q

what is the function of saponins in plants

A

destroy the membranes of fungi

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26
Q

define primary non-specific defence in animals

A

prevent initial entry of ANY TYPE of pathogen into an organism

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27
Q

what are some primary non-specific defences in animals

A

skin - physical barrier + secretes antimicrobial chemicals
nose hairs, eyelashes + tears - physical barrier
mucus - traps pathogens
wound repair - mitosis and migration of epidermal skin cells repair open wounds
blood clotting - platelets stop pathogens from entering + prevent blood loss
swelling - more tissue fluid drains into the lymphatic system

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28
Q

describe the primary non-specific defence of swelling in animals

A

histamines make the blood vessels dilate and more leaky more tissue fluid drains into the lymphatic system and heat raises
raised heat helps prevent pathogens reproducing
cytokines attract white blood cells to the site

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29
Q

define secondary non-specific defence in animals

A

once ANY TYPE of pathogen is already in an organism

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30
Q

why is the specific immune response quicker than the non-specific response in animals?

A

because the immune cells have to identify the specific pathogens that enter an organism

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31
Q

why is the secondary specific immune response faster than the primary?

A

because the secondary immune response already has memory cells which, when they come across the pathogen for the second time, are able to rapidly divide and form a large number of clones

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32
Q

what are helpful chemicals in non-specific defence

A

cytokines - act as cell signalling molecules informing other phagocytes that the body is under attack
can also increase body temperature and stimulate the specific immune system

opsonins - bind to pathogens and tag them so they can be more easily recognised by the phagocytes

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33
Q

what is an antigen?

A

a protein or glycoprotein that has a specific shape for organisms to recognise self-antigens and foreign antigens

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34
Q

what two responses do foreign antibodies trigger?

A

phagocytosis (secondary non-specific)
or
production of antibodies (specific)

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35
Q

what are antibodies

A

y shaped glycoproteins called immunoglobulins
bind to a specific antigen on the pathogen or toxin

36
Q

describe the structure of antibodies

A

y shaped
two heavy peptide chains on the inside
connected by disulfide bridges

two light peptide chains on the upper outside
antigen binding site on the top of each side
the hinge region between the upper half of the two heavy peptides - provides flexibility for binding to two separate antigens - one at each binding site

37
Q

how do antibodies defend the body

A
  1. antibody of the antigen-antibody complex acts as an opsonin so the complex is easily engulfed and digested by phagocytes
  2. most pathogens can no longer effectively invade host cells once they are in a complex
  3. antibodies act as agglutinins causing pathogens carrying antigen-antibody complexes to clump together - helps prevent spread and easier identification
  4. antibodies can act as anti-toxins, binding to toxins produced by bacteria
38
Q

describe how the structure of antibodies are related to their function

A

variable regions - form antigen binding sites - complimentary
hinge region - allows flexibility
constant region - allows binding to immune cells

39
Q

what are the main types of T lymphocytes

A

t helper cells
t killer cells
t memory cells
t regulator cells

40
Q

where do T lymphocytes mature

A

in the thymus gland

41
Q

where do B lymphocytes mature

A

in the bone marrow

42
Q

what are the main types of B lymphocytes

A

plasma cells
b effector cells
b memory cells

43
Q

what cells form antibodies

A

b plasma cells

44
Q

what is clonal selection and expansion

A

the selection of the correct T cells for the immune response and they divide by mitosis to produce masses of identical clones

45
Q

what is the function of T helper cells

A

release “interleukins” (type of cytokine - chemical messenger)
stimulate:
B cells to differentiate
the production of clonal selection and expansion of other T cells
macrophages to ingest pathogens

46
Q

what is the function of T killer cells

A

attack and destroy infected body cells using the chemical called “perforin” to pierce the cell membrane and then secrete cytotoxins into the cell

47
Q

what is the function of t regulator cells

A

shut down immune response after pathogen is removed. prevent auto immunity

48
Q

what is the function of T memory cells

A

involved in the immunological memory - remain in the body for years after infection and become active in secondary response to make more T cells fast - before showing any symptoms

49
Q

what is the function of B plasma cells

A

manufacture and release antibodies very quickly

50
Q

what is the function of B memory cells

A

remain in the body for years and act as immunological memory
respond quickly to secondary response to make more plasma cells - do not produce antibodies

51
Q

what is the size difference between plasma cells and b lymphocytes

A

plasma cells - lots more organelles - 6-8 um
b lymphocytes - fewer organelles - 4um

52
Q

define autoimmunity
what are some auto immune diseases

A

when your immune system does not recognise self antigens

Rheumatoid arthritis (joints)
lupus (connective tissue)
MS - multiple sclerosis (myelin sheath surrounding neurons)

53
Q

what are the 3 main types of antibodies

A

agglutinins
opsonins
antitoxins

54
Q

what is the function of the antibody agglutinins

A

stick pathogens together (via antigens)
hampers mobility of pathogens, allows phagocytes to engulf a larger number of pathogens

55
Q

what is the function of the antibody opsonins

A

bind to antigens via the antigen binding site
bind to the phagocyte via the constant region
makes it easier for phagocytes to find and engulf pathogens

56
Q

what is the function of the antibody antitoxins

A

bind to toxins produced by bacteria, and other pathogens, and make them harmless

57
Q

what are the features of lymphocytes and what do they differentiate into

A

large, round nucleus
6-8um (smaller than phagocytes)
no granules in cytoplasm

B cells - produced in bone marrow - mature in bone marrow then distributed into the lymphatic system

T cells - produced in bone marrow - mature in thymus - then distributed in the blood and lymphatic system

58
Q

what is an antigen presenting cell

A

cells that are attacked by pathogens will display antigens on their surface - attracting T&B cells
increasing the chances that the correct T and B lymphocytes will locate the antigens

59
Q

describe the process of inflammation in animals

A

localised response to a pathogen
hormone “histamine” is released which dilates the blood vessels
leading to increased local temperatures (vasodilation) - slows reproduction of pathogens
vessel dilation also leads to leakier capillaries - more blood leaves capillaries and forms tissue fluid in the lymphatic system
as tissue fluid goes into the lymphatic system - it takes pathogens with it
where white blood cells (and lymphocytes) act on pathogens

60
Q

describe the features and function of neutrophils

A

multi-lobed nucleus, made in bone marrow - allows cell to change shape - squeeze through gaps in capillaries
granular cytoplasm - lots of lysosomes
larger than R.B.C.s
short lived - undertake phagocytosis

61
Q

describe the features and functions of macrophages

A

larger than neutrophils, made in bone marrow
travel through the blood as monocytes
undertake phagocytosis
display antigens from pathogens on their surface - antigen presenting cell - help initiate an immune response

62
Q

describe the process of phagocytosis

A
  1. phagocyte recognises antigens (foreign protein) on surface of pathogens
  2. phagocyte engulfs the pathogen, folding its membrane in
  3. a phagosome is formed
  4. lysosomes fuse with phagosome - phagolysosome
  5. lysosomes release enzymes (lysins) to digest the pathogen
  6. harmless products absorbed
  7. macrophages then display the antigens on the plasma membrane
63
Q

what are the 4 types of immunity

A

active
passive
natural
artificial

64
Q

define active immunity

A

immune system is activated and you make antibodies and memory cells

65
Q

define passive immunity

A

is provided by antibodies NOT made in your system
could be provided across placenta or breastmilk

66
Q

define natural immunity

A

is gained “normally” or with no help, usually as a result of an infection (active)
antibodies provided from a mother in breast milk/ across placenta is also natural (passive)

67
Q

define artificial immunity

A

is gained by deliberate exposure to antigens or antibodies (active or passive) eg. vaccination

68
Q

define vaccination

A

a deliberate exposure to antigenic material which activates the immune system to make an immune response and provide immunity as memory cells

69
Q

what is herd immunity/ vaccination

A

when 90% of the population is vaccinated, it covers everybody as the disease cannot spread - limits chance of transmission and protects those unable to receive the vaccination

70
Q

why do vaccinations change frequently - boosters etc.

A

pathogens reproduce rapidly and therefore DNA is replicated frequently - binary fission in bacteria
mutations are more common and can change - when pathogens mutate their antigens change

71
Q

what is the function of antibiotics

A

drugs that only kill bacteria

72
Q

what is the function of antiviral drugs
what are the disadvantages

A

drugs that kill viruses - difficult to develop and often have side effects

73
Q

what is the function of antiseptics

A

kill pathogens but used for surfaces - not ingested

74
Q

what is the function of painkillers

A

treat symptoms of a disease - don’t actually kill the pathogen

75
Q

how are drugs traditionally made

A

extracted from plants and microorganisms

76
Q

what is digitalis and what is it made from

A

heart drug
made from foxgloves

77
Q

what is aspirin and what is it made from

A

painkiller from willow

78
Q

who discovered penicillin and what is it made from

A

by alexander flemming
from penicillium mould

79
Q

explain how phagocytes are able to pass from the blood to the tissue fluid

A

phagocytes have a multi-lobed nucleus and a flexible membrane. therefore they can change shape and pass through small gaps in capillaries
histamine causes the capillaries to become leakier

80
Q

describe the process by which a pathogen is destroyed after it has become attached to the surface of a phagocyte (non-specific)

A
  1. after the pathogen is attached, the membrane of the phagocyte folds around the pathogen engulfing it - phagocytosis/ endocytosis
  2. a phagosome is formed
  3. lysosomes fuse with the phagosome and release digestive enzymes (lysozymes) which break down/ digest pathogens into amino acids/ glucose/ fatty acids
  4. harmless products are absorbed and harmful products are drained into the lymphatic system to be disposed of
81
Q

Why are low income countries more likely to develop/spread infections

A

Houses may be overcrowded
Lack of trained Healthcare professionals
Culture - traditional medical practices

82
Q

Name the type of cell that produces antibodies

A

B plasma cell

83
Q

describe the role of memory cells on secondary infections

A

Recognize virus/antigen/pathogen
Produce clones
Can change to plasma cells on infection
Plasma cells produce antibodies against antigen
Responsible for secondary response
Destroy virus before symptoms appear
Can change into named t-cell

84
Q

how and why do plasma cells differ from b lymphocytes

A

larger : More organelles
More RER : More protein synthesis
Larger nucleus : More transcription
More golgi : More protein synthesis
More mitochondria: More aerobic respiration for protein synthesis

85
Q

define autoimmune disease

A

a disease which is caused by the body’s immune cells, mistaking your body cells for foreign cells/ pathogens

86
Q

suggest why antibodies specific to nuclear proteins are not normally made

A

nuclear proteins are normally hidden in the nucleus/ not exposed to tissue fluids

87
Q
A

biology (22 decks)

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