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AP Biology > Animal Form & Function > Flashcards

Animal Form & Function Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Cleavage

A

zygote begins rapid mitosis without cell growth to create a blastula (hollow ball of cells)

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2
Q

Gastrulation

A

the blastula folds in on itself to create a gastrula, which contains three distinct germ layers of cells

  • ectoderm (out)
  • mesoderm (middle)
  • endoderm (in)
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3
Q

Gastrulation: Ectoderm

A

creates nervous system, skin, & eyes

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4
Q

Gastrulation: Mesoderm

A

creates muscular, excretory, reproductive, circulatory, skeletal, & systems

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5
Q

Gastrulation: Endoderm

A 
creates epithelial linings of digestive, respiratory, &
excretory systems (organs with openings)
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6
Q

Organogenesis

A

“creation of organs”

germ layers develop into rudimentary organs (lungs are last)

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7
Q

Morphogenesis

A

The process that controls the spatial distribution of cells during embryonic development as fetus takes on human shape
• Causes cells to change shape, location, or adhesion
• Some cells are programmed for apoptosis (ex: webbing between human fingers)
• Induced by hormones but can be affected by environmental chemicals

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8
Q

Hierarchical Classification: Cells

A

form a working body due to emergent properties (these arise from successive levels of structural & functional organization)
• organized into TISSUES

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9
Q

Hierarchical Classification: Tissues

A 
Groups of cells with similar appearance & a common
function
• organized into ORGANS
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10
Q

Hierarchical Classification: Organs

A

Tissues that create functional units

• organized into ORGAN SYSTEMS

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11
Q

Hierarchical Classification: Organ Systems

A

Groups of organs that work together & coordinate to

complete a task

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12
Q

circulatory system

A

heart, blood vessels, blood

• internal distribution of materials

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13
Q

digestive system

A

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
• food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)

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14
Q

excretory system

A

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

• disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood

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15
Q

respiratory system

A

lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes

• gas exchange (uptake of oxygen, disposal of carbon dioxide)

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16
Q

Regulators

A

Use internal mechanisms to control internal change in response to external fluctuation
• internal conditions remain constant, energy-expensive, can survive in a greater variety of environments

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17
Q

Conformers

A

Allows for internal conditions to change with external changes
• requires less energy, more susceptible to environmental change

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18
Q

Homeostasis

A

maintaining of internal balance

• negative feedback loops

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19
Q

negative feedback loops

A
  • A variable is maintained at a particular value (set point)
  • Fluctuations above or below are detected by a sensor (receptor), which act as a stimulus to elicit a response
  • Once the variable returns to the set point the response is turned off
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20
Q

Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

A

The process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a normal range
• Endothermic animals are warmed by the heat created from metabolism
• Ex: mammals & birds
• Ectothermic animals gain their heat from external sources and internal temp. fluctuates with environment
• Ex: amphibians, fishes, reptiles, & invertebrates

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21
Q

Mammal Thermoregulation

A

negative feedback
mechanism
• hypothalamus (brain) contains sensors for body
temperature
• If body temperature decreases, the hypothalamus detects the change & elicits a response until the body temperature increases to the appropriate range
• shivering (simultaneous muscle contraction), vasoconstriction (blood vessels in skin constrict)
• Vice versa for when body temperature increases
• sweating (evaporative cooling), vasodilation (blood carried to surface of the skin so heat is lost through convection)

22
Q

Homeostasis: Childbirth

A

positive feedback mechanism
• A change in the variable results in amplification rather than reverse of the stimulus
• In childbirth the pressure of the baby’s head on receptors in the uterus release oxytocin to stimulate contraction, which cause more pressure, causing more contractions until childbirth is complete

23
Q

Endocrine System:

A

To maintain homeostasis, cells of organ systems must communicate & coordinate
response
• nervous & endocrine systems

24
Q

Endocrine System: hormones

A

• Hormones are released by endocrine cells
into the bloodstream and carried to target
locations throughout the body
• Only target cells with specific receptor will
respond
• Long lasting effects
• Best for gradual, long lasting changes in the
body (growth, development, reproduction, puberty, digestion & metabolic processes)

25
Q

Endocrine Pathway

A 
Internal/environmental
stimulus → hormone
release → hormone
travels in bloodstream →
interaction with target
cell → signal transduction
→ response
26
Q

control of pH in the

duodenum

A

Partially digested food with a low pH is passed from the acidic stomach to the duodenum & it must be neutralized
• S cells of duodenum respond to low pH by secreting the hormone secretin into the bloodstream, which causes the pancreas to release bicarbonate into the duodenum, neutralizing the pH

27
Q

Neuroendocrine Pathway

A

Many endocrine pathways depend on a sensor in the nervous system
• Therefore, the hypothalamus plays a central role in both systems (monitors internal temp., hormone release, etc.)
• Signals travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland
• Anterior (front) pituitary releases hormones to regulate other endocrine glands in the body
• Posterior pituitary releases two hormones, oxytocin &
antidiuretic hormone

28
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

A

“anti-pee”
negative feedback loop
• Hormone responsible for regulating water balance in blood through the kidneys
• Osmoreceptors in brain detect water levels as too low in blood → release of ADH → ADH increase water reabsorption in kidneys
(reducing urine output by decreasing amount of water in urine) → osmolarity return to acceptable range and makes person thirsty
-high concentration of water; low osmolarity (dilution)
-low concentration of water; high osmolarity (highly concentrated)

29
Q

Oxytocin

A

Hormone responsible for uterine contractions in childbirth & release of breast milk during lactation
• Example of positive feedback
• Lactation: baby suckling → receptors in skin send impulse to hypothalamus → oxytocin release → milk is released → baby continues to suckle (& the cycle continues)

30
Q

Multiple Effects of Hormones

A

• Hormones may result in more than one type of response
• epinephrine
• Fight or flight response that raises blood glucose, increases blood
flow to muscles, decreases blood flow to digestive tract
• Different receptors and transduction pathways on the target cells will determine the response

31
Q

Immune System

A

Enable an animal to avoid or limit infections from pathogens that find our internal environment an ideal habitat

32
Q

Innate Immunity

A 
Active immediately upon exposure to pathogens & is the same response regardless of previous exposure
• Consists of:
• Barrier defenses
• Phagocytosis
• The inflammatory response
33
Q

Barrier Defenses

A

Block entry of pathogens
• Skin
• Mucous membranes
• Secretions create a hostile environment
• Lysozyme in tears, saliva, & mucus will destroy cell walls of certain bacteria
• Swallowed bacteria cannot withstand the acidic stomach
• Sebaceous & sweat glands create skin that is acidic enough to prevent bacteria growth

34
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Pathogens that enter the body are engulfed by phagocytic cells and destroyed by enzymes
• Non-specific; consume non-self cells
• Two most common in mammals
• Neutrophils: circulate in blood & are attracted by signals from infected tissue
• Macrophages: larger phagocytic cells that travel throughout the body & reside in organs/tissues likely to have pathogens

35
Q

Inflammatory Response

A

Injury or infection of tissue cause swelling to increase the presence of white blood cells, aid in repair, & destruction of pathogens
• Mast cells (in connective tissue) release histamine that trigger blood vessels to dilate & become more permeable
• Activated macrophages & neutrophils at the site of injury will release cytokines to promote blood flow to the area bringing more macrophages
• Macrophages consume pathogens & cell debris (creating pus) while the wound heals

36
Q

Adaptive Immunity

A

acquired immunity
• Unique to vertebrates
• Allows for specificity, memory, & self-nonself recognition

37
Q

Lymphocytes

A

white blood cells that originate from stem cells in the bone marrow. Classified into two categories:
• T cells: lymphocytes that move to & mature in the thymus
• B cells: lymphocytes that remain & mature in the bone marrow

38
Q

Antigen

A

a substance that elicits a response from a B or T cell (typically a bacterial or viral protein)

39
Q

Epitope

A

the portion of the antigen that binds to an antigen receptor on a T or B cell
• One antigen has several epitopes
• B cells & T cells bind only to one epitope (specificity) & can to respond to any pathogen with the same epitope

40
Q

Four major characteristics of adaptive immunity:

A
  1. There is diversity in lymphocytes & receptors allowing for detection of never before encountered pathogens
    • 1 million B cell antigen receptors
    • 10 million different T cell antigen receptors
    *each cell has random selection of epitope knowledge
  2. There is self-tolerance, meaning there is no reactivity against your own molecules & cells (unless infected, cancerous, or mutated)
  3. Cell proliferation triggered by activation greatly increases the number of B & T cells for a specific antigen
  4. There is stronger & more rapid response to an antigen encountered previously due to immunological memory
41
Q

Proliferation of B & T Cells

A

Typically, there is only a few B & T cells for any epitope
• Once a B or T cell become activated it will then go through multiple cell divisions creating clones for different roles
• effector & memory cells

42
Q

Effector cells

A

short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen (majority)
• B cells form into plasma cells that create antibodies
• T cells create helper T cells & cytotoxic T cells

43
Q

Memory cells

A

long lived cells that can give rise to effector cells if you are exposed to the same antigen again

44
Q

Antigen Recognition by B Cell

A

B cell receptor binds to an antigen (epitope specificity)
• More (effector) B cells will be formed that secrete antibodies (free-floating antigen receptors)
• B cell antibodies bind to the antigens in the blood & lymph
• This neutralizes pathogens or makes them easier targets for phagocytosis- prevents pathogens from infecting other cells and causes agglutination (clumping)

45
Q

Antigen Recognition by

Helper T Cells

A
  • Helper T cells bind with fragments of antigen that are displayed on the surface of infected host cells
  • A pathogen infects or is taken up by host cells
  • Enzymes within the host cell break the antigen into smaller fragments that are moved to the cell’s surface for antigen presentation
  • Helper T cell releases cytokines to activate humoral immunity (in blood and lymph) & cell-mediated immunity
  • These will divide to create more helper T effector cells & helper T memory cells
46
Q

Humoral Immune Response

A

• B cells are used to create antibodies help to eliminate
pathogens in the blood & lymph
• B cells create clones that become B memory cells & antibody secreting plasma cells
• Each plasma cell can give rise to thousands of identical copies, each of which can produce 2,000 antibodies every second

47
Q

Cell-Mediated Immune

Response

A
  • Cytotoxic T cells use toxic proteins to kill cells infected by pathogens
  • These are activated by helper T cells & interaction with antigen-presenting cells which results in production of effector & memory cytotoxic T cells
  • The cytotoxic T cell binds to the antigen-presenting cell & secretes proteins that disrupt the membrane & trigger cell death
  • The freed pathogen will come in contact with an antibody
48
Q

Immunological Memory

A
  • Prior exposure to an antigen alters the speed, strength, & duration of an immunological response
  • Primary immune response: production of effector cells from the first exposure to an antigen
  • This will peak 10-17 days after the initial exposure
  • Secondary immune response: a response that is faster (peaks between 2-7 days), has greater magnitude, & more prolonged
  • B & T memory cells are long-lived & can quickly create clones
49
Q

Active & Passive Immunity

A
  • Passive immunity: antibodies are passed between individuals providing short-term protection
  • Ex: mother providing antibodies to developing fetus & then to a newborn infant through breast milk
50
Q

Artificial Active & Passive Immunity

A

• Active immunity: Immunizations created a primary immune response & immunological memory
• Passive immunity: antibodies can be taken from immune animals
& injected into an infected animal (ex: snake bite victims receive antivenom from sheep/horses that are immunized against snake
bites which allows for the marking & destruction of the toxins before massive damage is done)

AP Biology (30 decks)

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