Anatomy & Physiology Week 2 Flashcards
Organ Systems
Integumentary. Muscular. Skeletal. Nervous. Endocrine. Cardiovascular. Lymphatic. Digestive. Respiratory. Urinary. Reproductive.
Integumentary System
Contains largest organ in the body - the skin
Functions to protect our body by keeping microbes and harmful materials out, keeping body fluids in, and helping to control our body temperature
Integumentary made up of what structures
Epidermis
Dermis
Hypodermis
Nails
Hair
Sweat glands
Epidermis
Epidermis - outside layer of skin. Elastic and constantly being regenerated
Dermis
Dermis - inner layer of skin. connective tossie that is thick, fibrous structure made up of collagen, elastic tissue, nerve endings, hair follicles, vasculature, and glands
Hypodermis
Hypodermis, or subcutaneous later, lies below the dermis and consists largely of adipose and connective tissue. Main structural support for skin and insulates the body from the cold. also assists in shock absorption, interlaced with blood vessels and nerves, connects skin to muscle and bones
Nails
Nails - specialized epithelial cells grow from the nail bed, which divide and harden through keratinization
Hair
Hair - develops from hair follicles originating in the dermis, serves function of temperature regulation and acts as protection for skin. Helps increase sensory function within body. Sebaceous glands, often associated with hair follicles, secrete an oily substance called sebum to keep hair and skin soft
Sweat glands
if body temperature rises, nerve impulses stimulate activity in the sweat glands, releasing sweat onto skin surface. As sweat evaporates, heat is carried away, cooling the skin
Vitamin D
fat soluble vitamin
essential for bone health due to its role in calcium absorption and maintenance of calcium and phosphate concentrations. influence on immune system, blood sugar regulation, cell growth and differentiation
Skeletal system
support structure within the body. he skeletal system gives the body its shape and facilitates movement by providing a connection point for muscles. In addition, the skeletal system makes blood cells and stores and releases minerals and fats. It also provides protection for organs through its structure.
Bones
Cartilage
Joints
Tendons
Ligaments
Bones
Bones - hard, mineralized connective tissue. provide shape and support for body and protect internal organs. also serve as storage site for minerals and house the medium for development of red blood cells (marrow)
Cartilage
Cartilage - smooth, resilient connective tissue that reduces friction between bones. Composed of collagen and water, helps to absorb impact from movement and disperse body weight
Joints
Joints - made of flexible connective tissue and are found at points in the body where two or more bones meet. may bind bones together, like fibrous joints in our skull, while many allow movement through their hinging and rotating abilities
Tendons
Tendons - cords of strong flexible tissue attached to both muscle and bone and serve to move the bone or structure
Ligaments
Ligaments - fibrous connective tissue that attach bone to another bone, to stabilize connections at a joint. keep muscle and bone stable in place
Skeletal system and mineral supply
The skeleton contains 99% of the body’s calcium, as well as roughly 85% of the body’s phosphorus, and lesser amounts of potassium, sulfur, sodium, and magnesium.
Bone Remodeling
Bone is a living tissue and is continuously being broken down, repaired, and rebuilt
First, we have osteoclasts, osteo- meaning bone and -clast meaning to break apart. These bone cells break down bone and dissolve its minerals, leaving behind small cavities. This part of the process is known as resorption. Working to rebuild, we have osteoblasts, which are newly formed cells that build and compact to create new bone matrix. The creation of new bone matrix in this fashion is called ossification.
There are organs and hormones involved in promoting or inhibiting the activity of the cells responsible for bone remodeling and calcium homeostasis.
* The parathyroid glands, four small glands that regulate blood calcium levels, are located on the back of the thyroid gland in the neck
* Parathyroid hormone, or PTH, is the hormone produced by the parathyroid glands that has the effect of raising blood calcium. PTH accomplishes this by stimulating osteoclastic activity, which releases calcium from bone. It also increases calcium reabsorption from the urine by the kidneys - meaning that the kidneys recycle calcium to keep it in the body, and it increases calcium absorption from gastrointestinal tract. All of these processes lead to increased calcium in the blood.
* Calcitonin, a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, has the effect of lowering blood calcium. Calcitonin inhibits osteoclastic activity, thereby stopping the breakdown of bone. It also decreases calcium reabsorption from kidneys (so more calcium will be removed via the urine), further contributing to decreased serum calcium levels.
Calcium Homeostasis
Calcium homeostasis maintains a specific calcium level in our blood at all times. tightly controlled process, and works quickly to regulate itself as blood calcium levels play a vital role in many human life activities, such as maintenance of the skeleton, regulation of hormonal secretion, and transmission of nerve impulses.
If the calcium level increases, the thyroid gland will release calcitonin. If the calcium level decreases, the parathyroid glands will release parathyroid hormone.
Bone health
Dietary and lifestyle strategies that support healthy bones include regular intake of nutrient dense foods rich in calcium, avoiding cigarettes and excessive alcohol intake, and including weight-bearing and resistance movements as appropriate. One should also make note of any ongoing medication use that may interfere with calcium absorption to have a full understanding of possible impact on calcium status.
Muscular system
Muscle cells build muscle tissue. Three types of muscle tissue:
skeletal
smooth
cardiac
Skeletal muscles
voluntary muscles of the body, allow us to walk and talk. composed of muscle tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue, and blood. work with skeletal system to facilitate movement. skeletal muscles are striated meaning they have alternating bands of light and dark protein structures that would be visible under magnification
Smooth muscle contraction
Smooth muscle contraction is similar to skeletal muscle, with the notable difference of being contracted involuntarily, as their actions are regulated by neurotransmitters and hormones.
slower to contract and relax, and can maintain a more forceful contraction for a greater period of time.
also have the ability to change length without influencing tautness, meaning they can stretch while maintaining consistent pressure, an important feature for organs like our stomach and small intestine.
found in the walls of hollow organs, like the stomach and intestine, as well as our blood vessels.
Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart and is also under involuntary control. Its mechanism of contraction is self-exciting, meaning that the electrical signal to contract originates in the heart itself. As the impulse travels through the various parts of the heart, the whole structure contacts as a unit. This process repeats itself rhythmically, in what we know as the heartbeat.
Anabolism
Anabolism describes metabolic reactions in which energy is used to build larger, more complex structures from smaller molecules
Anabolic exercise, typically short-duration, weight-bearing movements, utilizes little cellular energy in the moment, but has the effect of stressing muscle fibers leading to subsequent repair and growth.
Catabolism
catabolism is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller components, thereby releasing energy.
Catabolic activity, commonly called aerobic or cardiovascular exercise, has the opposite effect; it requires high use of oxygen and energy during the active period. While aerobic exercise is beneficial for cardiovascular function and endurance, one should consider frequency and duration with respect to muscle catabolism. Balancing cardiovascular exercise with weight-bearing movement, ensuring adequate protein intake, and allowing for rest and recovery will all work to limit muscle breakdown and support overall muscle health.
Nervous system
Nervous system is command center of the human body
Central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the brain which is the nervous tissue located within the skull, and the vertebral column, or spinal cord, which is enclosed by the bones of the spine, called vertebrae. Both the brain and spinal cord contain millions of neurons, also known as nerve cells.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS). branches peripherally from the brain and spinal cord, connecting to other areas of head, neck, and trunk of the body. From the base of the brain, twelve pairs of cranial nerves extend to specific points in the body; for example, the optic nerve connects to the back of the eye and is responsible for transferring visual information from the retina to the brain.
Spinal nerves
Originating in the spinal cord, there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves which provide communication between the spinal cord and parts of the neck, truck, and limbs. These nerves are not named individually, but are grouped according to the point of origin along the spine; starting at the neck, there are 8 pairs of cervical nerves, twelve pairs of thoracic nerves, five pairs of lumbar nerves, five pairs of sacral nerves, and finally one pair of coccygeal nerves.
The peripheral nervous system also includes sensory receptors, specialized cells which receive information from our internal and external environment, and ganglia, clusters of neurons, or nervous tissue, that carry nerve signals to and from other parts of the body.
Nervous system - Sensory function
touch, temperature, sound, and light, as well as internal signals such as changes in blood pressure or hormone levels
Nervous system - Integrative function
make decisions, plan and carry out movements, and respond to changes in our environment
Nervous system - Motor function
can initiate motor output, sending signals to muscles and glands to carry out specific actions
Autonomic nervous system - Sympathetic
fight or flight. this is the branch of our nervous system that prepares the body for physical activity and stress
Sympathetic:
dilate pupils. inhibit salivation. relax airways. increase heartbeat. inhibit activity of stomach. stimulate release of glucose. inhibit gallbladder. inhibit activity of intestines. secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine. relax bladder. promote ejaculation and vaginal contractions.
enteric: neural activity within our intestines
Autonomic nervous system - Parasympathetic
rest & digest. works to return the body to a state of relaxation to maintain mental and physical health.
constrict pupils. stimulate saliva. constrict airways. slow heartbeat. stimulate activity of stomach. inhibit release of glucose. stimulate gallbladder. stimulate activity of intestines. contract bladder. promote erection of genitals
Vagus Nerve
The Vagus nerve, also called the tenth cranial nerve or cranial nerve X, extends downward from the brainstem through the neck and into the chest and abdomen, providing a communication highway between the brain and several important organs, including our heart, lungs, liver, and intestines. The Vagus nerve is the primary neural connection for our parasympathetic nervous system, and it helps regulate several critical physiological responses, like heart rate, blood pressure, digestive function and hormonal response.
Endocrine System
The endocrine system is also involved in daily cell-to-cell communication, and this system includes the cells, tissues, organs (collectively referred to as the endocrine glands) which utilize chemical signaling via substances called hormones. Differing from the immediate nature of neural communication, hormones are transported through the blood stream to arrive at an intended target cell-receptor site.
The hormones produced by the endocrine system regulate life processes from the moment we’re born, and are involved in growth, development, metabolism, energy production and storage, sleep, sexual function and reproduction, blood pressure, mineral balance, and more.
Major Glands of Endocrine system
hypothalamus
pituitary gland
pineal gland
thyroid gland
parathyroid glands
adrenal glands
pancreas
gonads (testes and ovaries)
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus works in tandem with the pituitary gland; you can think of them as the conductors of the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, a small region of the brain, oversees the entire system, receiving feedback from all glands involved, constantly assessing hormonal balance in efforts to maintain homeostasis. If the hypothalamus is the master conductor, the pituitary is second in command, receiving instruction from the hypothalamus and using that information to direct the function of rest of the endocrine glands.
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands, small cap-shaped glands located at the top of each kidney (-renal meaning kidney), are responsible for producing critical hormones that maintain multiple body processes. Each adrenal gland consists of the outer adrenal cortex and the inner adrenal medulla, with each region producing unique hormones.
The adrenal medulla secretes two closely related hormones, epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and norepinephrine (or noradrenaline). These hormones are associated with the sympathetic nervous system and the state we refer to as “fight or flight”, and work to increase heart rate, improve blood flow, dilate air passages, and increase blood glucose levels to provide immediate energy.
Aldosterone
ldosterone is our major mineralocorticoid, so named for the influence on regulating mineral homeostasis. The main function of aldosterone is to increase sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys while concurrently increasing potassium excretion via urine. The net effect of these two actions yields an increase in blood volume and blood pressure.
Cortisol
Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone, so called for its effect on glucose metabolism produced in the intermediate zone of the adrenal cortex.
The cells of the inner zone of the adrenal cortex produce a small amount of androgen hormones that serve as precursors to more potent steroid hormones. During puberty and into adulthood, these precursor hormones can be converted by the testes and ovaries into active sex hormones.
