Anatomy & Physiology Week 1 Flashcards
Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body, and the relationships of those structures
ana = up
tom = process of cutting
Physiology
Physiology is the study of the functions of the parts of the body
physio = nature
logy = study of
Standard Anatomical Position
-Standing
-Head facing forward
-Arms at side
-Palms facing forward
-fingers extended
Directional Terms related to standard anatomical position
Superior: body part closer to the head or above another body part
Inferior: a body part further away from the head, or below another body part
Ex: The knee is superior to the ankle, but inferior to the pelvis
Anterior: toward the front of the body
Posterior: toward the back of the body
Ex: The forehead is anterior to the brain. The spine is posterior to the navel
Medial: body part closer to the midline of the body
Lateral: body part is further from the midline
Ex: The nose is medial to the ears. Ears are lateral to the mouth.
Anatomical Position
Proximal: nearer to the trunk or the point of origin of a part
Ex: the elbow is proximal to the wrist
Distal: away from the trunk or the point of origin
Ex: Fingers are distal to the wrist
Superficial and Deep: respectively referring to a body part or structure near the surface of the body, or to parts more internal
Ex: Skin is superficial to muscle tissue. Bones are deep to the skin.
Levels of Structural Organization
Structural Organization: Viewing the architecture of the human body from micro to macro, in increasing levels of complexity
Chemical Level
The chemical elements necessary to sustain life
Major elements include: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
Lesser elements include: calcium, magnesium
Trace elements include: copper, iodine, zinc
Cellular and Tissue
Cellular: Formed from molecular building blocks
Ex: blood cell, nerve cell
Tissue: Groups of cells that work together to perform a common function
Ex: muscle tissue (smooth, cardiac, striated)
Organ
Organ:
-anatomically distinct structure
-often has a recognizable shape
-performs a specific physiological function
Ex: Lungs, heart, stomach
Organ System
Related organs with a common function
esophagus, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, ascending colon, appendix, spleen, stomach, transverse colon, descending colon, small intestine, rectum
Chemistry
the science of the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter
Elements
All matter is composed of fundamental substances called elements
Major elements:
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
Oxygen accounts for nearly 65% of our chemical makeup
Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate molecules are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The term monosaccharide, what we also refer to as a “simple sugar”, designates a carbohydrate with 6 carbon atoms, and they are often the building blocks for more complex carbohydrates. Simple sugars include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Carbohydrates may be most well-known for providing a source of energy for our cells. Carbohydrates can also be stored within tissue for future energy supply, and to a smaller extent, they contribute to building certain cell structures.
Lipids
Lipids, composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms, are a group of organic compounds which includes fats, steroids, and phospholipids.
Fats are the most common lipid in the human body, and primarily serve as energy storage. Fat molecules provide over twice the amount of energy, gram for gram, than carbohydrates or protein. Lipids also play a critical role in the structure of our cell membranes and are used to build hormones and other signaling molecules.
Protein
While we readily associate protein with muscle tissue, proteins serve a wide variety of functions within the body. In addition to oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, proteins also contain nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
Other important types of proteins in the body are enzymes, which are like spark plugs for chemical reactions, and antibodies, which are an integral part of our immune system. They also build receptor sites on cell surfaces and neurotransmitters used for cellular communication.
Inorganic Compound (no carbon)
Water – from a chemistry standpoint – is an inorganic substance. Composed of just hydrogen and oxygen, it is the most abundant compound found in living material, and it makes up nearly 60-70% of our body weight.
Water plays numerous roles in the body, including transporting nutrients, flushing toxins and waste, and lubricating our joints and tissues. Roughly 60% of the water in our bodies is found within cells. The volume of intracellular fluid is tightly regulated to maintain appropriate concentration and helps facilitate many routine cellular activities.
Homeostasis
Homeo = similar to
Stasis = standing still
Homeostasis describes a state of relative stability within an organism’s internal environment.
Homeostasis Feedback Loop
a negative feedback loop works to reverse a variation from the set point; in our example that could be a drop, or rise, in body temperature
Power of Hydrogen (pH)
chemical
cellular
tissue
organ
system
organism
The pH scale:
2 - acidic (lemon)
5 - neutral (coffee)
13 - alkaline (bleach)
Stomach acid / HCl: 1.5 - 3.5 (acidic)
Saliva: 6.5 - 7.5 (neutral)
Blood: 7.35 - 7.45 (neutral)
Cells
Building blocks of the human body
-build anatomical structure
-facilitate growth
-absorb and transport nutrients
-roduce energy
-sites of metabolic reaction
-house genetic material
Plasma Membrane
the boundary between a cell’s contents and the environment outside of the cell
The plasma membrane of a cell is a network of lipids and proteins that form the boundary between a cell’s contents and the environment outside of the cell. This membrane is primarily composed of a double layer of specialized lipids called phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic, or water-loving, phosphate head, and a hydrophobic, or water-fearing, fatty acid tail. These phospholipids arrange themselves in a double layer to create the membrane, with the water-loving heads facing outward, and the water-fearing tails making up the interior of the membrane. Additionally, the plasma membrane includes cholesterol molecules to help stabilize the structure of the membrane, and scattered proteins that serve a variety of functions.
The main function of the plasma membrane is to protect the cell from its surrounding environment. The membrane provides a biologically active barrier, as it also regulates the substances that enter and exit the cell.
Cytoplasm
cellular material inside the plasma membrane
The cytoplasm consists of all of the cellular material inside the plasma membrane aside from the nucleus. Cytosol, the gel-like fluid component of the cytoplasm, is the medium for all biochemical reactions in the cell. Cytoplasm also contains organelles (“little organs”), which are membrane- bound structures in the cell that perform specific functions.
Cytoskeleton
Fibrous proteins that help cells maintain their structural shape
The cytoskeleton is a group of fibrous proteins that helps cells maintain their structural shape, essentially the “skeleton” of the cell. The cytoskeleton also helps to maintain the positioning of the cell’s internal organelles and is responsible for the cell’s mobility and movement.
Nucleous
Central organelle that houses DNA
The nucleus is the cell’s central organelle, and it controls and regulates activities of the cell, such as growth and metabolism. The nucleus also houses the cell’s genetic material, or DNA, which contains all of the hereditary information of the organism. A double membrane called the nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus, separating it from the cellular cytoplasm.
Nuclear envelope and pores
Allows for transport in and out of the cell
The nuclear envelope contains open channels called nuclear pores. The nuclear pore complex regulates the passage of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, allowing for the appropriate transport of certain proteins and molecules.
Nucleolus
Produces ribosomes
The nucleolus is a circular structure found in the cell’s nucleus. Its primary function is to produce and assemble the cell’s ribosomes, which we’ll discuss in a moment.
Mitochondria
the powerhouse of the cell, which generate most of the energy needed to fuel biochemical activity
Mitochondria, sometimes referred to as the “powerhouses” of the cell, generate most of the energy needed to fuel the cell’s biochemical activity. Mitochondria consist of an outer lipid bilayer and an additional inner lipid bilayer. The inner layer is extensively folded into structures called cristae, creating a large surface area for chemical reactions to occur on. Along this folded surface a series of proteins and enzymes are found, which work together to perform a series of chemical reactions necessary to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP), or cellular energy.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
synthesizes proteins, and other substances
ER The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of channels situated adjacent to the nucleus that creates a network which serves to provide passage of molecules from one area of the cell part to another. Endoplasmic Reticulum can exist in two forms, rough ER and smooth ER.
The rough ER, so named for its textured appearance, is embedded with small, spherical structures called ribosomes. Ribosomes are like micro-machines for synthesizing proteins in the cell. The smooth ER lacks ribosomes, and contains special enzymes involved in lipid synthesis, including phospholipids and steroid hormones. Additionally, the smooth ER plays a role in the breakdown and metabolism of certain toxins, including drugs and alcohol.
Golgi Complex / Golgi Apparatus
Sorts and processes proteins
Vesicles
Sacs that facilitate transportation of materials within, and from, the cell
Lysosomes
Break down waste products
Epithelial Tissue
-tightly packed sheets of cells
-cover exterior surfaces and line internal cavities and organs
-one side has a free surface
Examples: skin, lining of GI tract, passageways of respiratory system, salivary glands, pancreas glands
Tissue Types
Connective: cartilage, blood
Muscle: skeletal muscle
Nervous: brain, spinal cord
Three basic components that make up a Feedback System
a receptor
a control center
an effector
Life Processes
-metabolism
-responsiveness
-movement
-growth
-differentiation
-reproduction
Transport across the plasma membrane can be active or passive. Identify the two passive examples
Diffusion
Osmosis
Cell Structure
-plasma membrane (made up of a phospholipid bilayer)
-cytoplasm
-cytoskeleton
Organelles
-nucleus
-endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER and smooth ER)
-lysosome
-golgi apparatus
Cellular Respiration (not on exam)
- glycolysis
- pyruvate oxidation
- citric acid cycle
- oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain)
Mitochondrial Dysfunction
things that can damage mitochondira:
-aging
-disease & inflammation
-toxin exposure
-physical trauma
-stress (psychological)
-free radicals
Mitochondrial Support
-foods rich in antioxidants and phytonutrients
-low glycemic, low starch dietary approach
-reduce exposures to toxins
-exercise
-supplements
