altered cell and tissue biology Flashcards
1
Q
what are the 3 most important processes of the cell and why?
A
- the cell membrane = the skin of the cell
- the mitochondria = store the most amount of ATP (energy)
- nucleus = stores DNA
2
Q
What’s the function of the cell membrane?
A
- allows molecules to move in and out of the cell, and how the cell signals to other cells
3
Q
what is aerobic metabolism?
A
- cells use o2 to generate large amounts of ATP
4
Q
what is anaerobic metabolism and its role with the mitochondria?
A
- ATP is made in the mitochondria, ATP being made without enough o2 making less ATP overall, then draining and damaging the cells, causing disease
5
Q
What’s the function of the nucleus? how can it turn pathological?
A
- the nucleus makes proteins and stores DNA, which can become pathological because it becomes misfolded and causes cell damage
6
Q
what are the chemicals within the cell (that are important to our class) & are involved in the 3 important parts of the cell?
A
- calcium
- sodium
- insulin
7
Q
Why does calcium need to stay outside of the cell?
A
- calcium needs to be outside of the cell because it too much calcium is toxic to the mitochondria, resulting in not as much ATP being made as need be = causing damage
- calcium needs to stay outside of the cell !
8
Q
what role does sodium play in cellular adaptation?
A
- h2o follows sodium, if it’s not controlled or pushed out of the cell, water will follow, ensuring that the cell will swell and burst if there’s too much sodium for too little ATP = damage
9
Q
what is a synapse?
A
- the space between cells in the brain where the signals flow
10
Q
what is paracrine signaling?
A
- when one cell signals to the cell next door
11
Q
what is endocrine signaling?
A
- cells send signals to a cell farther away via the blood stream
12
Q
what is autocrine signaling?
A
- cell sends the signal to itself
13
Q
what is adaptive cellular morphology?
A
- the cells ability to morph or change based on signals / stimulus
- HAS THE POTENTIAL TO REVERSE IF THE STIMULIS IS REMOVED
14
Q
what is atrophy?
A
- decrease in cell size, because the cells aren’t being used
15
Q
what is a disease & normal example of atrophy?
A
- patho: if someone was in a cast for a long period of time (if the cast gets removed, or the stimulus, then cells go back to normal
- normal: lack of use, or old age
16
Q
what is hypertrophy?
A
- increase in cell size !!!
17
Q
what is a normal and disease example of hypertrophy?
A
- normal: lifting weights
- patho: hemodynamic overload = cardiac hypertrophy meaning that the heart muscle itself grow, making it harder for blood to be pumped adequately throughout the body because there’s less room for the blood move.
18
Q
what is cardiac hypertrophy?
A
- due to hemodynamic overload is the remodeling of the left ventricle and heart failure, then the heart overcompensates by increasing it size, however, that’s worse because then the heart muscle grows and the blood doenst get enough blood pumped bc there’s less room in the heart for the blood to go.
19
Q
what is hyperplasia?
A
- increase in cell NUMBER
20
Q
what are the normal and patho examples of hyperplasia?
A
- patho: swelling gums due to increase cells
- patho: swelling prostate = if the prostate gets too big it can cause the urine to stop or decrease flow, which can turn into kidney infections, uti, and even cancer
- normal ex: pregnancy!! normal hormonal growth
21
Q
What is metaplasia?
A
- ## one cell getting replaced by another celll (the secondary cell is supposed to be better at the function)
22
Q
What is dysplasia?
A
- Abnormal cell growth
23
Q
What is a path and normal example of dysplasia?
A
- patho: cervical dysplasia!!!!
- cells can BECOME pre cancerous, however, they’re not cancerous
- if stimulus is removed, it is reversible
24
Q
What are pathos and normal examples of metaplasia?
A
- patho: barrettes esophagus, smokers lung
- normal: the changing of the cervical lining during the menstrual cycle
25
what are the 6 kinds of cellular injury?
- ATP depletion
- mitochondrial damage
- overproduction of reactive 02 species (ROS)
- calcium influx into cells
- cell membrane damage
- protein misfolding
26
what damage does ATP depletion cause?
- loss of ATP = cell swelling = decreased transportation / breakdown of the plasma membrane
27
what cellular injury does mitochondrial damage cause?
- decreased ATP production = damaging everything
28
what cellular injury does Overproduction of reactive 02 species (ROS) cause?
- due to destruction of cell membranes and structures
29
what does calcium influx into cells do?
- enzyme activation (bad)
30
what does cell membrane damage do?
- loss of selective permeability, lysosomal membrane damage w/ enzyme released
31
what does protein misfolding do?
- DNA damage
32
what is anaerobic metabolism?
- lack of o2
- also known as hypoxia
33
what happens when there's a decrease in ATP?
- failure of sodium/potassium pump & calcium exchange
- water follows sodium = causing cellular swelling
34
what is ischemia?
- lack of blood/ flow
35
what is a reperfusion injury?
- restoration of 02 in cell, regenerating ROS which further damage the membrane bc there's a calcium overloud of the mitochondria = cell death
- makes bad damage worse
36
what is anoxia?
- total lack of o2
37
why is ROS bad?
- ROS are unstable reactive molecules that can interact with and cause cell damage
- can be made by the body or environmental factors like heavy metals & pollution
38
what causes chemical injury to cells?
- chemical agents:
- drugs
- arsenic
- cyanide
- opioids
- acetaminophen
39
what other types of toxic injury are there?
- environmental toxins: air population, carbon monoxide
- heavy metals: mercury, lead, ethanol
40
what causes unintentional and intentional cellular injury?
- asphyxiation & strangulation
- temp extremes: hypothermia & hyperthermia
- mechanical deformation = direct trauma to cells, by blood loss or obstructed flow
- electricity
- radiation
41
what causes immunologic inflammatory in a cell?
- infectious injury:
- pathogenicity of a microorganism
- virulence of a microorganism
- disease producing potential: invasion, destruction, toxin production
- immunologic injury: pathogenic cells, immune and inflammatory substances
42
what causes/ what is hydropic swelling?
- cellular swelling due to accumulation of water into the cell
- reversible cell injury = malfunction of na/k pump with more NA in the cell
- cell swells and that results in loss of ATP
43
what are the two types of irreversible cell injury?
1. necrosis
2. apoptosis
44
describe apoptosis
- cell death from activation of intercellular signaling
- clean & programmed cell death
45
describe necrosis:
- happens when the injury is too severe or prolonged to allow for adaptation to
46
what typically causes necrosis?
- typically, a consequence of ischemia or toxic injury
- cell rupture
- spilling of contents into extracellular fluid
47
what are the local and systemic indicators of cell death?
- pain
- elevated serum enzyme levels
- inflammation (fever, increased WBC, malaise)
- loss of function
47
what are the 5 types of necrosis?
- coagulation
- liquefactive
- caseous
- fat
- gangrenous
47
what is coagulation?
- clotting factors
- due to hypoxia
- effects heart, kidneys, adrenal glands
- looks like jelly bc its blood clotts in the heart
47
define liquefactive necrosis?
- enzymes in your brain turn it into liquid
- due to bacterial infections and ischemia
47
define fat necrosis:
- its on the breast, pancreas, and lipases
48
define caseous necrosis
- effects the lungs and a good example is TB
- combo of coagulation & liquefactive = looks like cheese
49
what is gangrenous necrosis:
- large cell death bc severe ischemic injury and is large scale damage (3 types)
50
what is dry gangrene?
- its coagulative necrosis of lower limbs
- caused by diabetes bc glucose is too big of a molecules and when it gets into blood it stops blood flow
- skin becomes dry, shrunken, back in color
51
describe wet gangrene
- neutrophils invading (liquefactive)
- effects internal organs becomes cold swollen, black, and has foul odor
52
describe gas gangrene?
- due to clostridium infection causing bubbles of skin
