All Biology Flashcards
Describe the organisation levels of the human body
Atom Molecule Macromolecule Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism
What does the plasma membrane consist of
2 layers of phospholipids with protein molecules embedded in them
What does the head of the phospholipid molecule have
Electrically charged and hydrophilic
What does the tail of the phospholipid molecule have
No charge and hydrophobic
How is the phospholipid bilayer arranged
The hydrophilic heads aligned on the outer surface of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails form the central water repelling layer
What’s the largest organelle
The nucleus, this is contained within membrane similar to the plasma membrane but has tiny pores which some substances can pass between it and the cytoplasm
What does the nucleus contain
The body’s genetic material which directs activities of the cell
What forms chromatin
DNA and proteins called histones coiled together
During cell division what does chromatin become
Chromatin replicates and becomes more tightly coiled forming chromosomes
What are the functional subunits of chromosomes called
Genes
What are the organelles in eukaryotic cell
Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, macrofilaments and microtubules
What shape is the mitochondria
Sausage shape
Where is the mitochondria located
In the cytoplasm
What’s the powerhouse of the cell
Mitochondria
What does the mitochondria do
Involved in aerobic respiration, the process by which chemical energy is made available in the cell (ATP)
What does ATP do in the mitochondria
Releases energy when the cell breaks it down
When is synthesis of ATP most efficient
In the final stages of aerobic respiration, a process requiring oxygen
What are ribosomes
Tiny granules composed of RNA and protein
How do ribosomes synthesise proteins?
From amino acids, using RNA as the template
When do the ribosomes make protein
When present in free units or in small clusters in the cytoplasm
What is the endoplasmic reticulum
A series of interconnecting membranous canals in the cytoplasm
What does the smooth ER do
Synthesises lipids abs steroid hormones
Associated with detoxification of some drugs
What does the rough ER do
Synthesises proteins that are exported from the cell
What does the Golgi apparatus consist of
Stacks of closely folded membranous sacs
What does the Golgi apparatus do
Proteins move from the ER to the Golgi apparatus where they are packaged into the membrane bound vesicles called secretory glands
What do the vesicles do in the Golgi apparatus
The are stored
When needed, they move to the plasma membrane through which the protein is exported
What are lysosomes
One type of secretory vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus
What do the lysosomes contain
A variety of enzymes involved in breaking down fragments or organelles and large molecules inside the cell into smaller particles that are either recycled or extruded from the cell as waste material
What blood cells are lysosomes in
White blood cells - contain enzymes that digest foreign material such as microbes
What are microfilaments
Tiny strands of protein that provide structural support and maintain the characteristic shape of the cell
What are microtubules
Contractile protein structures in the cytoplasm involves in the movement of the cell, the movement of cilia and the organisation of proteins in the plasma membrane
What are the core requirements for the human to live
Pressure
Heat
Food
Oxygen water
What are the body cavities
Cranial
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
What cavity is the brain in
Cranial, it’s boundaries are formed by the bones of the skull
Where is the thoracic cavity situated
In the upper part of the trunk. It’s boundaries are formed by bony framework and support muscles
What organs are in the thoracic cavity
The trachea, 2 bronchi, 2 lungs The heart, aorta, superior + inferior vena cava, numerous other blood vessels Oesophagus Lymph vessels and lymph nodes Nerves
What’s the largest cavity in the body
Abdominal cavity
What shapes the abdominal cavity
Oval
Where is the abdominal cavity situated
Main part of the trunk (decided into 9 regions)
What organs are in the abdominal cavity
Stomach, small intestine and most of large intestine
Spleen
2 kidney, upper part of uterus
2 adrenal glands
Numerous blood vessels, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, neves
What shape is the pelvic cavity
Funnel shaped
Where is the pelvic cavity situated
Extends from the lower end of the abdominal cavity
What organs are in the pelvic cavity
Sigmoid colon, rectum, Anus
Some loops of small intestine
Urinary bladder, lower parts of the uterus and urethra
What organs are the respiratory system
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 2 bronchi, brochiolious and smaller air passages, 2 lungs and their coverings, the pleura
Organs of the digestive system (alimentary tract)
Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
Organs of the digestive system (accessory organs)
3 pairs of salivary glands, pancreas, liver and biliary tract
What are the glands/organs in the endocrine system
Hypothalamus 1 pituitary glands 1 thyroid gland 4 parathyroid glands 2 adrenal glands 1 pineal gland 2 ovaries (female) 2 testes (male)
What are the main parts of the nervous system
Central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
What does medial mean
Structure nearer to the surface (heart is medial to humerus)
What’s lateral mean
Structure if further from the midline or at the side of the body ( humerus is lateral to the heart)
What does proximal mean
Nearer to a point of attachment (femur is proximal to fibular)
What’s does distal mean
Further from the point of attachment (fibular is distal to femur)
What does anterior or ventral mean
Part of the body being described is nearer the front of the body (sternum is anterior to vertebrae)
What does posterior or dorsal mean
Part of the body being described is nearer the back of the body (vertebrae is posterior to sternum)
What does superior mean
Structure nearer to the head (skull or posterior to scapulae)
What does inferior mean
Structure further from the head (scapulae are inferior to the skull)
What does homeostasis mean
The composition of the internal environment is maintained within narrow limits (maintaining internal balance)
How is homeostasis maintained
By control systems which detect and respond to change
What are the 3 components of that he control system
Detector, control centre, effector
What does the control centre do
Determines the limits within which variable factor should be maintained. It receives an input from the receptor/sensor and integrates the incoming information
What happens when incoming signals indicates that an adjustment is needed
The control centre responds and it’s output to the effector is changed.
What feedback systems are present in the body
Positive and negative
What does the effector do if the system is controlled by negative feedback
It decreases or negates the effect of the original stimulus, restoring homeostasis
What type of feedback is blood clotting
Positive
What type of feedback is shivering when you’re cold
Negative
What type of feedback is uterine contractions during labour
Positive
What does the stimulus do in positive feedback
Progressively increases the response
When does homeostatic imbalance arise
When a fine control of a factor in the internal environment is inadequate and the level of the factor falls outside the normal range
What are the four phases of mitosis
Prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase
What’s happening at prophase
DNA gets organised into chromosomes
What’s happening at metaphase
Chromosomes get lined up into the middle of the cell
What’s happening at anaphase
Chromosomes get pulled apart
What’s happening at telephone is
Separate cell membranes
What’s happening at cytokinesis
Divide into two separate cells
What is happening at interphase
Cell isn’t dividing but is getting ready to potentially divide
Why do cells divide and specialise
Lifespan of most individual cells are limited, many become worn out and die and are replaced by identical cells by mitosis
What is the cardiac cycle
Atrial systole
ventricular systole
atrial and ventricular diastole
What happens at atrial systole
A wave of contraction that spreads over the myocardium of both atria, emptying the atrium and filling the ventricles
What happens at ventricular systole
A wave of contraction sweeps upwards from the apex of the heart and pulls the walls of the ventricles, pumping blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta
What happens at Atrial and ventricular diastole
Atria and ventricles are relaxed, during this time myocardium recovers until it contracts again and atria fill for the next cardiac cycle
What is an allele
Alternative forms of a gene for each variation of a trait of an organism (one from mum one from dad)
What is heterozygous
When there are two different alleles of that trait (Bb)
What are Homozygous
When there are two identical alleles for a trait (BB, bb)
How did two brown eyed people have a blue eyed baby
Because of the action of the dominant and recessive genes
What is the cell cycle
The cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides
The cell leaves interphase and undergoes mitosis (pmat)
How is a cardiac impulse initiated and conducted through the myocardium
The SA node triggers a wave of contraction that spreads over the myocardium of both atria
What is the SA node
Pacemaker of the heart - initiates impulses more rapidly
What’s the AV node do
Stimulated by impulses that sweep over the atrial myocardium
Initiate impulses that cause a contraction but slower than SA node
Where is the bundle of his
Crosses the fibrous ring that separate atria and ventricles
What are purkinje fibres
Fine fibres broken up from the bundle of his
What happens at the P-wave
Sinoatrial node is depolarising
What happens at the QRS complex
Ventricular depolarisation
What happens at the T wave
Ventricular repolarisation
What do the coronary veins do
Carry deoxygenated blood from the myocardium and empty them into the chambers of the heart
What do the coronary sinuses do
Responsible for draining most of the deoxygenated blood leaving the myocardium
What’s the difference between pulmonary and systemic circulation
Pulmonary moves blood between the heart and lungs
Systemic moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body
What organs make up the respiratory system
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 2 bronchi, bronchioles, 2 lungs
What’s the mechanism of breathing
When you inhale, your diaphragm contracts and moves downwards, lungs expand and ribs pull outwards
Where does gas exchange occur in the respiratory system
Alveoli
 how does gas exchange occur in the alveoli
They are small sacs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
Capillaries are thin blood vessels in the walls of the alveoli
What factors control breathing
Carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, oxygen levels
What do coronary arteries do
Allow blood to flow to the heart muscle
What is hypoxia
Low oxygen levels
Why do you need food
Provides body with needed nutrients, needed for energy, raw building material for growth and repair, and to regulate chemical reactions
Why do you need oxygen
Used to release energy from food (1/5 or air, 21%) 
Why do you need heat
Product of metabolic reactions that controls reaction rate; temperature - measure of the degree of heat
Why do you need pressure
Atmospheric pressure is needed for breathing
Hydrostatic pressure is needed to move blood through the vessels
How does the respiratory and circulatory system interact with other body systems
To pump blood and oxygen around the body
What’s the difference between anatomy and physiology
Anatomy is the study of the structure, physiology is the study of the function
What is an atom
Simplest level (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon)
What is a molecule
Two or more atoms comprise a molecule
What is a macromolecule
Biologically important molecules inside a cell
What are organelles
Aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell
What’s a cell
The basic unit of structure and function for living things
What’s a tissue
Groups of cells functioning together
What are organs
Groups of tissues that have specialised functions
What does bilateral mean
Paired structures with one on each side
What does ipsilateral mean
Structures on the same side
What does contralateral mean
Structures on the opposite side
What does superficial mean
Near the surface
What does deep mean
More internal
What is the sagittal section
Divide the body into left and right positions. If it passes along the midline it is midsagittal section, a section lateral to the midline is parasagittal
What is a transverse section
Divided body into inferior and superior parts
What is a frontal section
Divide body into anterior and posterior sections
What can you find in the mediastinum cavity
Heart and a Oesophagus 
What’s in the plural cavity
Lungs
What is metabolism
Chemical reactions that are happening in the body to build things up or break things down to maintain homeostasis
What is anabolism
Build things up (protein etc)
Requires energy
What is catabolism
Breaks things down (digestive enzymes)
Produce energy
What happens to responses in negative feedback
Move in opposite direction from change
What happens to the set point in negative feedback
Reduces the amount of change from the set point
Where are the receptors for negative feedback
Anywhere in the body, detect the change (in blood glucose levels, oxygen levels, co2 levels etc) 
Wheres the control centre for negative feedback
Brain, hypothalamus and pancreas
Detects change sent from receptors and sends it to the effectors
What do effectors do
Respond to change (make the change) 
What happens to the set point in positive feedback
Responses move further from the set point, change from set point gets larger
What produces unstable conditions in the body
Positive feedback
What type of feedback is breastfeeding
Positive feedback
 what are the tissue types
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
where is the simple squamous tissue
Alveolar membranes to allow things to move through them
Very flat
Where is stratified squamous tissue
Skin, inside of mouth or anywhere you can lose lots of cells
Where is the transitional epithelial tissue
Bladder
Can go down really small but when filled up with something, it can stretch out again
What are epithelial tissue types
Simple squamous, stratified squamous, simple cuboidal, stratified cuboidal, simple columnar, transitional
What type of tissue is blood
Fluid connective tissue
What is the most abundant tissue in the body
Connective tissue
What makes different types of connective tissue
Bone, cartilage, fat, blood, tendons, ligaments
What are the two types of connective tissue
Loose and dense
What are the muscle tissue types
Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
What muscle tissue is voluntarily controlled
Skeletal 
What muscle tissue is involuntary controlled
Cardiac and smooth
What is the wave motion when you eat something and it goes down the oesophagus
Peristalsis
What muscle do you need lots of energy for
Skeletal muscle
Which muscle tissue has more mitochondria and nuclei
Skeletal
What’s the difference in shape with smooth and skeletal muscle
Smooth is very flat and spindle-shaped
Skeletal is very striated
What muscle tissue is branching into each other
Cardiac
What muscle tissue is intercalated
Cardiac
What muscle tissue contracts quickly and relaxes quickly
Skeletal
What muscle tissue contract slowly and relaxes slowly
Smooth
What is mitosis
Normal cell division
Part of growth and development getting two identical cells
What controls growth and development
Mitosis
What is meiosis
Happens when forming of gametes (sperm and egg) 
How many chromosomes do you have in meiosis
23 daughter cells, all genetically different
What’s division involves half a number of chromosomes
Meiosis
Is diffusion a passive or active process
Passive
What is diffusion in the lungs
Breathe oxygen in, oxygen defuses across the alveolar membrane and into the bloodstream
Going from high concentration in the lungs to lower concentration in the bloodstream
Is filtration a passive or active process
Passive
Is facilitated diffusion passive or active process
Passive
What’s the difference between facilitated diffusion and diffusion
In facilitated diffusion you need a carrier protein to allow things to go through the barrier (cell membrane)
Is active transport passive or active process
Active because it’s going from a low concentration to a high to allow action potential take place 
Is osmosis active or passive
Passive, relies on a semipermeable membrane
What’s the difference between osmosis and filtration
Filtration is pushing out, osmosis is pulling back in to create that balance
What is DNA made up into
Genes 
What’s on chromosomes
Genes
What’s an allele
Two copies from every gene
What’s the difference between dominant and recessive genes
If you have a dominant gene, you only need one copy for it to show
What is a recessive gene disorder
Cystic fibrosis
What’s the correct order for heart conduction
SA node AV node Bundle of his Left and right bundle branches Purkinje fibres
Order of pulmonary circulation
Deoxygenated blood comes from the vena caval to the right atrium, through the atrioventricular valve, to the right ventricle, ventricles contract and pushes blood to the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary arteries and into the lungs
Order of systemic circulation
Oxygenated blood comes from the lungs through the pulmonary veins, into the left atrium, through the mitral valve, to the ventricle, when ventricle contracts it goes to the aortic valve and out through the aorta and around the body
How does the heart supply blood to itself
Coronary arteries
Order of oxygen going from mouth to lungs
Mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs
What muscle do you use a normal breathing
Diaphragm
What does the skin help produce
Vitamin D in exposure to sunlight
What is melanin
Produced by melanocytes, helps darken skin
What’s the joint and function of elbows and knees
Hinge joint, allows flexion and extension along one plane
What is the joint and function of hip
Ball and socket, allow rotational movement
What is the Joint and function of tarsal bone
Gliding/plane joint, allow twisting movement
What is the joint and function of trapezium carpal and first metacarpal bone
Saddle joint, allow angular movements
What’s the joint and function between radius and carpal bones of the wrist
Condyloid joint, allows angular movement along 2 axes
What’s the joint and function between C1 and C2 vertebral 
Pivot joint, allows rotational movement
What’s the difference between somatic and automatic nervous system
Somatic you have control over
Autonomic you don’t have control over
What is the autonomic nervous system divided into
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
What is the sympathetic nervous system
Fight or flight, revving everything up and get ready for action
What is the parasympathetic nervous system
Rest and digest, calms you down
What is the sensory nervous system
Eyes, senses, touch receptors, everything thats sending information to the spine and brain
What’s the motor nervous system
Controls everything, reflex action, conscious movement
Difference in cells in the nervous and endocrine system
Nervous - neurones
Endorine – epithelial and other
Difference in chemical signals in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – neurotransmitter
Endocrine – hormones
Difference in specificity of response in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – receptors on postsynaptic cell
Endocrine - receptors on target cell
Speed in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – seconds
Endocrine – seconds to hours
Duration of action in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – very brief on this neuronal activity continues
Endocrine – maybe brief or may last for days even if secretion ceases
What’s the cell body in a neuron
Cells life support centre
What’s the dendrites in the neuron
Connects to other neurons, receive messages from other cells
What’s the axon in a neuron
The lead that goes the terminal branches, passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands
What’s the myelin sheath do in a neuron
Plays a role in speed of transmission on that axon
What happens if you touch something hot
Signal goes from the spine to the hand allowing it to pull away before it goes the brain
Receptor, sensory neuron, motoneuron, effector 
What is action potential
Nerve transmission taking place
Action potentials exist in their parts nerve response
What is referred pain
Pain originating from stimulation in one part of the body but felt in another part
How does referred pain arise
Merging common nerve pathways and cerebral cortex incorrectly interprets the source of pain
What’s the stages of development order
Neonatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, senescence
What does the lymphatic system filter
Blood
What does prothrombin get converted into
Thrombin
What does fibrogen and get converted into
Loose fibrin threads
What does a loose fibrin threads get converted into
Stabilised fibrin clot
What are non-specific immunity
Phagocytic cells (monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils) - all white blood cells
What are adaptive immunity
B and T cells
Specific to each type of invader
Allows us to develop resistance to specific microorganisms
What are the interdependent components of adaptive immunity
Cell mediated immunity – T cells
Humoural immunity – B cells
What do T cells do
Attack pathogens directly
What do B cells do
Produce antibodies
Can adaptive immunity be active or passive
Both
What do t lymphocytes do
Attack nonself materials directly, particularly effective against antigens of fungi, bacteria, viruses, parasites, foreign tissue transplants and abnormal cells
What do B cells do
Carry antibodies
Fighting things at long range – attacking pathogen via the antibodies
What do b and T cells make
Memory cells
What’s autoimmunity
Attack of self antigens by immune system
B cells produce antibodies to attack own cells
Wheres the elementary canal start and finish
Mouth to anus
Where does peristalsis start and finish
After larynx to the rectum
What’s the three key points of the formation of urine
Filtration
Selective reabsorption
Secretion or tubular secretion
What are the normal constituents of urine
Water, urea, drugs, alcohol
What are the abnormal constitutes of urine
Glucose, blood, protein
What are the formed elements of blood
Erythrocytes, leucocytes, thrombocytes
What is the liquid portion of blood called
Plasma
Why do we need five different leucocytes
They all have different jobs
What are granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
What are agranulocytes
Monocytes and lymphocytes
What do neutrophils do
Protect against foreign materials and remove waste
They engulf and kill microbes by phagatosis 
What do eosinophils do
Are capable of phagatosis 
Eliminate parasites such as worms which are too big to be phagoctosed
Release toxic chemicals
What do basophils do
Promote information with heparin and histamine
Associated with allergic reactions
What are monocytes
Large molecular cells that originate in bone marrow
Some Motile and phagocytic
Some develop into macrophages
Produce interleukin 1
What are lymphocytes
Smaller than monocytes and have a large nuclei
Present and lymphatic tissue
Tcells directly attack other cells
B cells release antibodies
Natural killer cells are similar to T cells but non-specific
What’s the function of haemoglobin
Essential in transferring oxygen in blood from the lungs to the tissues
Combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
Also involved in transport of carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs for excretion
How many atoms of iron ore on each haemoglobin molecule
4
What blood group is compatible with group A as a donor
Group A and AB
What blood group is compatible with group B as a donor
Group B and AB
What blood group is compatible with group AB as a donor
Group AB
What blood group is compatible with group O as a donor
Universal donor
What blood group is compatible with group A as a recipient
Group A and O
What blood group is compatible with group B as a recipient
Group B and O
What blood group is compatible with group AB as a recipient
Universal recipient
What blood group is compatible with group O as a recipient
Group O
What blood group makes anti b
Group a
What blood group makes anti a
group b
What blood group makes anti a and b
Group o
What blood group doesn’t make anti a or b
Group ab
What antigen does blood group O have
No antigens
What antigen does blood group a have
A antigens
What antigen does blood group AB have
A and b antigens
What antigen does blood group B have
B antigens
Where are antibodies located in the blood
Plasma
What are the four steps in a blood clot (heamostasis)
Vasoconstriction
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation
Fibrinolysis 
what’s happens during vasoconstriction
When platelets are in contact with a damaged blood vessel, their surface becomes sticky and they adhere to the damaged wall
They release sterotonin which constricts the vessel, reducing flow of blood through it
What happens during the platelet plug formation
Adherent platelets clump to each other and release Adenosine diphosphate which attract more platelets to the site
What happens during coagulation
Fibrin traps the blood cells and is stronger than the platelet plug
In the final stages of this prothrombin activator acts on the plasma protein prothrombin converting it to thrombin
Thrombin then acts on fibrinogen and converts it to fibrin
What’s the difference in extrinsic and intrinsic pathway
Extrinsic is more rapid, intrinsic is slower
What happens during fibrinolysis
After the clot is formed, the process of removing and healing begins
Plasmin initiates the breakdown of fibrin to soluble products that are removed by phagocytosis 
What is the role of fibrin, prothrombin and thrombin
Prothrombin is transported into thrombin
Thrombin acts to transform fibrinogen into fibrin which forms the blood clot
What’s the difference between thrombus and embolus
Thrombus is the little bits in the blood vessel that stick together on the vessel and cause a blockage therefore creates the clot in the vessel
Embolus can be something that has broken off, or something large enough to float around or it has been allowed to get in the vessel and goes around until it gets stuck and creates a blockage
What is the lymph
A clear watery fluid
What does lymph do in the body
Transports plasma proteins that seep out of the capillaries beds back to the bloodstream
Carries away larger particles which can then be filtered out and destroyed by lymph nodes
What part does the lymphatic system play in protecting the body
Lymphatic system is part of the immune system, it produces and release lymphocytes that destroy foreign invaders
What is the immune response
A Reaction of the body in response to the presence of a foreign substance
What are antibodies and what role do they play
Large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralise foreign objects
How do t and B cells become activated
The lymphocyte is manufactured in the bone marrow. Once released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow, lymphocytes are processed into T-lymphocyte and B-lymphocyte
What’s the difference between humoral and cellular immune response
Humoral immunity protects the body against extracellular pathogens and their toxins
Cell mediated immunity protects the body against intracellular pathogens
What’s the difference between active and passive immunity
Active immunity occurs when our own immune system is responsible for protecting us from a pathogen
Passive immunity occurs when we are protected from the pathogen by immunity gained from someone else
What’s the primary and secondary immune response
The primary immune response displays the face contact of the immune system with the infectious agent, whereas all following contacts with the same pathogen are secondary immune response
What are the benefits of vaccinations
Retain the antigenic properties that stimulate the development of immunity but don’t cause the disease
Diseases can be prevented by artificial immunisation
What is hypersensitivity
Powerful immune response to an antigen that is usually harmless
Causes damage to the body
Responses are exaggerated versions of normal immune functions
Can be mild or extreme and could cause death from anaphylactic shock
What’s autoimmune disease
Body fails to recognise own tissues and attacks itself
What are the layers of the skin
Epidermis and dermis
Functions of the skin
Protection Regulation of body temperature Formation of vitamin D Sensation Absorption  excretion
What conditions are required for wound healing
Systemic factors – good nutritional status and general health
Local factors – good blood supply providing oxygen and nutrients and removing waste products, freedom from contamination
What’s the difference between primary and secondary healing
Primary – method of healing follows minimal destruction of tissues
Secondary – method of healing following destruction of large amount of tissue
What’s the repair process for wound healing
Inflammation
Proliferation
Maturation 
How are long, short and irregular bones developed
From rods of cartilage, cartilage models
How are flat bones developed
From membrane models
How are sesamoid bones developed
From tendon models
What are the processes of bone development
Secretion by osteoblasts of osteoid
Calcification of osteoid immediately after its deposition
When is bone growth complete
When cartridges become completely ossified
Why do we need tendons and ligaments
Tendons connect muscle to bone, allowing us to move and ligaments help hold things in place
What do you ligaments connect
Bone to bone to form joints
What do tendons connect
Muscle to bone to allow movement
What’s the function of the red bone marrow
Involved in production of blood cells
What’s the function of yellow bone marrow
Importance of fat in storage
What bone marrow is in the medullary canal
Yellow
What bone marrow is in the cancellous bone
Red
What makes the muscles contract
Muscle contraction is triggered when an action potential travels along the nerves to the muscles
What are the cells that make up the nervous system
Neuron and neuroglia
What do neurons have characteristics of
Irritability and conductivity
What are the three parts of a neuron
Cell body
Axon
Dendrites
How does information travel between neurons
Through the release of chemical substances into the space between the axon and the dendrites
 what is a neuron supported by
Neuroglia (connective tissue)
What regions make up the human brain
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
What are the parts of the brain
Cerebrum
Brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
Cerebellum
What are the receptors in the human body
 chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors Mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, sensory receptors
How does sensation arise
When action potentials are generated by sensory receptors on the dendrites of the neurons, they are transmitted to the spinal cord. Impulses pass to the brain or reflex arcs in the spinal cord
How is sense of pain produced and perceived
Sensory receptors send messages to spinal cord and brain stem and then onto the brain where sensation of pain is registered, info is processed and pain is perceived
Structure of a reflex arc
Sensory receptor Sensory neurone Control centre Motor neurone Effector target
How do hormones act on the body
Chemical messages
Hormones communicate with the body by heading towards the target cell to bring about change
How are hormones controlled
Endocrine system keeps hormones and that affect us on the right level through feedback loops
Release of hormones is regulated by other hormones, proteins and neuronal signals
What’s the general function of the digestive system
To break down and absorb nutrients from food and liquid
What is the role of the kidney in the control of blood pressure
Increases blood pressure
Plays a role in water balance by controlling sodium and reabsorption of salt through the kidneys
What hormones are involved in regulation of urine concentration volume
Anti-diuretic hormone ( produced by pituitary gland)
How is urine produced
Nephrons of the kidneys process blood and create urine through a process of filtration, reabsorption and secretion
What is micturition
Autonomic afferent fibres convey impulses to the bladder causing contraction of the Detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter (having a wee)
How is micturition controlled
By nervous signals both from somatic and autonomic nervous system
Function of the renal artery in kidney
Transports oxygenated blood from the heart and aorta to the kidney for filtration
Function of the renal vein in the kidney
Transports filtered and deoxygenated blood from kidney to the posterior vena Cava and then heart
Functions of the renal column in the kidney
A passageway located between the renal pyramids found in the medulla and used as a space for blood vessel
Function of nephron in the kidney
The physiological unit of the kidney used for filtration of blood and re-absorption and secretion of materials
Function of the capsule in the kidney
The outer membrane that encloses, supports and protects the kidney
Function of the cortex in the kidney
Outer layer of the kidney that contains most of the nephron; main site of filtration, re-absorption and secretion
Function of the medulla in the kidney
Inner core of the kidney, bottom of nephron goes into this area
Salt, water and urea is reabsorbed
Function of the renal pyramid in the kidney
Helping to concentrate salts and reserve water – plays a role in the reabsorption process
Function of the renal papilla in the kidney
Urine gets taken from the nephron and into the ureter
Also in conjunction with the calyx
Function of the calyx in the kidney
A collecting sac that transports urine from the papilla to the renal pelvis
What’s the function of the ureter in the kidney
Transports urine from renal pelvis to the bladder
What is the glomerulus
Site for blood filtration
Functions of the kidney
Kidneys form urine which pass through the uterus to the bladder for storage prior to excretion
Function of the urinary bladder
A Reservoir for urine
 in pelvic cavity but when distended, it rises into the abdominal cavity
Functions of the Urethra
Allows urine to pass outside the body
What are the fluid compartments
Intercellular, extracellular, Interstitial 
How do you water and electrolytes move between compartments
Osmosis
If something is further away from a point of attachment to a limb or origin of the body compared to another it is said to be:
Distal
Breathing rate is most likely to decrease if the blood level of what decreases
Carbon dioxide
Where are the vocal chords located
Larynx
What protein makes up part of the red blood cell which carries oxygen throughout the body
Haemoglobin
What type of blood do arteries in the systemic circulation deal with
Oxygenated blood
A normal immune response requires what cells
Both T and B cells
Will antibody concentration be higher or lower during the second encounter with the same antigen
Higher
What type of tissue is cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle
Muscle tissue
 when will water moves out of the cell
If impermanent solutes are present in lower concentration in intercellular fluid
What type of cell is responsible for making skin darken on exposure to sunlight
Melanocytes
What muscle is in voluntary, one nuclei Per cell, multibranched
Cardiac
What muscle is voluntary, multinucleated, striated
Skeletal muscle
What nervous system is responsible for the fight or flight response
sympathetic nervous system
What does in insulin cause
A decrease in the concentration of blood glucose
What phase of gastric function is conditioned reflex to sight and smell of food
Cephalic phase
What phase of the gastric function stimulated by food in the stomach releases the hormone gastrin
The gastic phase
What is hydrostatic and osmotic pressure responsible for
Movement of water and electrolytes between fluid compartments
Why children have higher fluid requirements than adults
The children has a higher surface area to body mass ratio
What is passive aging
Structure breakdown on a molecular level
Slowing function
Elastin and college’s degenerates
Free radicals damage cells
What is active ageing
Normal growth and development
Also ties in with auto-immunity
Risks of ageing
Immune system becomes less able to manage infection
Vessels and coronary arteries become less able to flex and stretch
Effects cardiovascular health
Less able to heal and repair
What’s the role on salivary glands
Secreate saliva to moisten food particles, help bind them and begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates
Saliva dissolves food so that they can be tasted and cleanses mouth and teeth
Role of the liver
Carbohydrate metabolism - Maintains concentration of blood glucose
Lipid metabolism -oxidising fatty acids, synthesising lipoproteins, phospholipids and cholesterol
Role of the gall bladder
Stores bile between meals
Reabsorbs water to concentrate bile and contracts to release bile in the small intestine
Role of the pancreas
Secretion of pancreatic juice
Breaks triglyceride molecule into fatty acids and glycerol
Role of the mouth
Mechanically breaks up solid particles into smaller pieces mixing them with saliva
Role of the pharynx
A cavity posterior to the mouth from which the tubular oesophagus leads to the stomach
Important passageways and muscular walls function swallowing
Role of oesophagus
Food passageway from the pharynx to the stomach
Goes to the stomach on the abdominal side of the diaphragm
Role of stomach
Receives food from oesophagus, mixes with gastric juices, initiates protein digestion, carries on limited absorption and moves food into small intestine
Role of small intestine
Receives chyme from the stomach and secretions from the pancreas and liver
Completes digestion in the nutrients of chyme, absorbs products of digestion and transports the residues to the large intestine
Role of large intestine
Absorbs water and electrolytes from chyme remaining in the elementary canal
Forms and stores faeces
Which kidney is lower
Right kidney is lower than left
What do fibroblast produce
Collagen fibres
What muscle tissue is multinucleated
Skelletal
What secretes hormones from the sympathetic nervous system
Adrenal medulla
