All Biology Flashcards
1
Q
Describe the organisation levels of the human body
A
Atom Molecule Macromolecule Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism
2
Q
What does the plasma membrane consist of
A
2 layers of phospholipids with protein molecules embedded in them
3
Q
What does the head of the phospholipid molecule have
A
Electrically charged and hydrophilic
4
Q
What does the tail of the phospholipid molecule have
A
No charge and hydrophobic
5
Q
How is the phospholipid bilayer arranged
A
The hydrophilic heads aligned on the outer surface of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails form the central water repelling layer
6
Q
What’s the largest organelle
A
The nucleus, this is contained within membrane similar to the plasma membrane but has tiny pores which some substances can pass between it and the cytoplasm
7
Q
What does the nucleus contain
A
The body’s genetic material which directs activities of the cell
8
Q
What forms chromatin
A
DNA and proteins called histones coiled together
9
Q
During cell division what does chromatin become
A
Chromatin replicates and becomes more tightly coiled forming chromosomes
10
Q
What are the functional subunits of chromosomes called
A
Genes
11
Q
What are the organelles in eukaryotic cell
A
Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, macrofilaments and microtubules
12
Q
What shape is the mitochondria
A
Sausage shape
13
Q
Where is the mitochondria located
A
In the cytoplasm
14
Q
What’s the powerhouse of the cell
A
Mitochondria
15
Q
What does the mitochondria do
A
Involved in aerobic respiration, the process by which chemical energy is made available in the cell (ATP)
16
Q
What does ATP do in the mitochondria
A
Releases energy when the cell breaks it down
17
Q
When is synthesis of ATP most efficient
A
In the final stages of aerobic respiration, a process requiring oxygen
18
Q
What are ribosomes
A
Tiny granules composed of RNA and protein
19
Q
How do ribosomes synthesise proteins?
A
From amino acids, using RNA as the template
20
Q
When do the ribosomes make protein
A
When present in free units or in small clusters in the cytoplasm
21
Q
What is the endoplasmic reticulum
A
A series of interconnecting membranous canals in the cytoplasm
22
Q
What does the smooth ER do
A
Synthesises lipids abs steroid hormones
Associated with detoxification of some drugs
23
Q
What does the rough ER do
A
Synthesises proteins that are exported from the cell
24
Q
What does the Golgi apparatus consist of
A
Stacks of closely folded membranous sacs
25
What does the Golgi apparatus do
Proteins move from the ER to the Golgi apparatus where they are packaged into the membrane bound vesicles called secretory glands
26
What do the vesicles do in the Golgi apparatus
The are stored
| When needed, they move to the plasma membrane through which the protein is exported
27
What are lysosomes
One type of secretory vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus
28
What do the lysosomes contain
A variety of enzymes involved in breaking down fragments or organelles and large molecules inside the cell into smaller particles that are either recycled or extruded from the cell as waste material
29
What blood cells are lysosomes in
White blood cells - contain enzymes that digest foreign material such as microbes
30
What are microfilaments
Tiny strands of protein that provide structural support and maintain the characteristic shape of the cell
31
What are microtubules
Contractile protein structures in the cytoplasm involves in the movement of the cell, the movement of cilia and the organisation of proteins in the plasma membrane
32
What are the core requirements for the human to live
Pressure
Heat
Food
Oxygen water
33
What are the body cavities
Cranial
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
34
What cavity is the brain in
Cranial, it’s boundaries are formed by the bones of the skull
35
Where is the thoracic cavity situated
In the upper part of the trunk. It’s boundaries are formed by bony framework and support muscles
36
What organs are in the thoracic cavity
```
The trachea, 2 bronchi, 2 lungs
The heart, aorta, superior + inferior vena cava, numerous other blood vessels
Oesophagus
Lymph vessels and lymph nodes
Nerves
```
37
What’s the largest cavity in the body
Abdominal cavity
38
What shapes the abdominal cavity
Oval
39
Where is the abdominal cavity situated
Main part of the trunk (decided into 9 regions)
40
What organs are in the abdominal cavity
Stomach, small intestine and most of large intestine
Spleen
2 kidney, upper part of uterus
2 adrenal glands
Numerous blood vessels, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, neves
41
What shape is the pelvic cavity
Funnel shaped
42
Where is the pelvic cavity situated
Extends from the lower end of the abdominal cavity
43
What organs are in the pelvic cavity
Sigmoid colon, rectum, Anus
Some loops of small intestine
Urinary bladder, lower parts of the uterus and urethra
44
What organs are the respiratory system
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 2 bronchi, brochiolious and smaller air passages, 2 lungs and their coverings, the pleura
45
Organs of the digestive system (alimentary tract)
Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
46
Organs of the digestive system (accessory organs)
3 pairs of salivary glands, pancreas, liver and biliary tract
47
What are the glands/organs in the endocrine system
```
Hypothalamus
1 pituitary glands
1 thyroid gland
4 parathyroid glands
2 adrenal glands
1 pineal gland
2 ovaries (female)
2 testes (male)
```
48
What are the main parts of the nervous system
Central nervous system
| Peripheral nervous system
49
What does medial mean
Structure nearer to the surface (heart is medial to humerus)
50
What’s lateral mean
Structure if further from the midline or at the side of the body ( humerus is lateral to the heart)
51
What does proximal mean
Nearer to a point of attachment (femur is proximal to fibular)
52
What’s does distal mean
Further from the point of attachment (fibular is distal to femur)
53
What does anterior or ventral mean
Part of the body being described is nearer the front of the body (sternum is anterior to vertebrae)
54
What does posterior or dorsal mean
Part of the body being described is nearer the back of the body (vertebrae is posterior to sternum)
55
What does superior mean
Structure nearer to the head (skull or posterior to scapulae)
56
What does inferior mean
Structure further from the head (scapulae are inferior to the skull)
57
What does homeostasis mean
The composition of the internal environment is maintained within narrow limits (maintaining internal balance)
58
How is homeostasis maintained
By control systems which detect and respond to change
59
What are the 3 components of that he control system
Detector, control centre, effector
60
What does the control centre do
Determines the limits within which variable factor should be maintained. It receives an input from the receptor/sensor and integrates the incoming information
61
What happens when incoming signals indicates that an adjustment is needed
The control centre responds and it’s output to the effector is changed.
62
What feedback systems are present in the body
Positive and negative
63
What does the effector do if the system is controlled by negative feedback
It decreases or negates the effect of the original stimulus, restoring homeostasis
64
What type of feedback is blood clotting
Positive
65
What type of feedback is shivering when you’re cold
Negative
66
What type of feedback is uterine contractions during labour
Positive
67
What does the stimulus do in positive feedback
Progressively increases the response
68
When does homeostatic imbalance arise
When a fine control of a factor in the internal environment is inadequate and the level of the factor falls outside the normal range
69
What are the four phases of mitosis
Prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase
70
What’s happening at prophase
DNA gets organised into chromosomes
71
What’s happening at metaphase
Chromosomes get lined up into the middle of the cell
72
What’s happening at anaphase
Chromosomes get pulled apart
73
What’s happening at telephone is
Separate cell membranes
74
What’s happening at cytokinesis
Divide into two separate cells
75
What is happening at interphase
Cell isn’t dividing but is getting ready to potentially divide
76
Why do cells divide and specialise
Lifespan of most individual cells are limited, many become worn out and die and are replaced by identical cells by mitosis
77
What is the cardiac cycle
Atrial systole
ventricular systole
atrial and ventricular diastole
78
What happens at atrial systole
A wave of contraction that spreads over the myocardium of both atria, emptying the atrium and filling the ventricles
79
What happens at ventricular systole
A wave of contraction sweeps upwards from the apex of the heart and pulls the walls of the ventricles, pumping blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta
80
What happens at Atrial and ventricular diastole
Atria and ventricles are relaxed, during this time myocardium recovers until it contracts again and atria fill for the next cardiac cycle
81
What is an allele
Alternative forms of a gene for each variation of a trait of an organism (one from mum one from dad)
82
What is heterozygous
When there are two different alleles of that trait (Bb)
83
What are Homozygous
When there are two identical alleles for a trait (BB, bb)
84
How did two brown eyed people have a blue eyed baby
Because of the action of the dominant and recessive genes
85
What is the cell cycle
The cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides
The cell leaves interphase and undergoes mitosis (pmat)
86
How is a cardiac impulse initiated and conducted through the myocardium
The SA node triggers a wave of contraction that spreads over the myocardium of both atria
87
What is the SA node
Pacemaker of the heart - initiates impulses more rapidly
88
What’s the AV node do
Stimulated by impulses that sweep over the atrial myocardium
| Initiate impulses that cause a contraction but slower than SA node
89
Where is the bundle of his
Crosses the fibrous ring that separate atria and ventricles
90
What are purkinje fibres
Fine fibres broken up from the bundle of his
91
What happens at the P-wave
Sinoatrial node is depolarising
92
What happens at the QRS complex
Ventricular depolarisation
93
What happens at the T wave
Ventricular repolarisation
94
What do the coronary veins do
Carry deoxygenated blood from the myocardium and empty them into the chambers of the heart
95
What do the coronary sinuses do
Responsible for draining most of the deoxygenated blood leaving the myocardium
96
What’s the difference between pulmonary and systemic circulation
Pulmonary moves blood between the heart and lungs
| Systemic moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body
97
What organs make up the respiratory system
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 2 bronchi, bronchioles, 2 lungs
98
What’s the mechanism of breathing
When you inhale, your diaphragm contracts and moves downwards, lungs expand and ribs pull outwards
99
Where does gas exchange occur in the respiratory system
Alveoli
100
 how does gas exchange occur in the alveoli
They are small sacs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
Capillaries are thin blood vessels in the walls of the alveoli
101
What factors control breathing
Carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, oxygen levels
102
What do coronary arteries do
Allow blood to flow to the heart muscle
103
What is hypoxia
Low oxygen levels
104
Why do you need food
Provides body with needed nutrients, needed for energy, raw building material for growth and repair, and to regulate chemical reactions
105
Why do you need oxygen
Used to release energy from food (1/5 or air, 21%) 
106
Why do you need heat
Product of metabolic reactions that controls reaction rate; temperature - measure of the degree of heat
107
Why do you need pressure
Atmospheric pressure is needed for breathing
| Hydrostatic pressure is needed to move blood through the vessels
108
How does the respiratory and circulatory system interact with other body systems
To pump blood and oxygen around the body
109
What’s the difference between anatomy and physiology
Anatomy is the study of the structure, physiology is the study of the function
110
What is an atom
Simplest level (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon)
111
What is a molecule
Two or more atoms comprise a molecule
112
What is a macromolecule
Biologically important molecules inside a cell
113
What are organelles
Aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell
114
What’s a cell
The basic unit of structure and function for living things
115
What’s a tissue
Groups of cells functioning together
116
What are organs
Groups of tissues that have specialised functions
117
What does bilateral mean
Paired structures with one on each side
118
What does ipsilateral mean
Structures on the same side
119
What does contralateral mean
Structures on the opposite side
120
What does superficial mean
Near the surface
121
What does deep mean
More internal
122
What is the sagittal section
Divide the body into left and right positions. If it passes along the midline it is midsagittal section, a section lateral to the midline is parasagittal
123
What is a transverse section
Divided body into inferior and superior parts
124
What is a frontal section
Divide body into anterior and posterior sections
125
What can you find in the mediastinum cavity
Heart and a Oesophagus 
126
What’s in the plural cavity
Lungs
127
What is metabolism
Chemical reactions that are happening in the body to build things up or break things down to maintain homeostasis
128
What is anabolism
Build things up (protein etc)
| Requires energy
129
What is catabolism
Breaks things down (digestive enzymes)
| Produce energy
130
What happens to responses in negative feedback
Move in opposite direction from change
131
What happens to the set point in negative feedback
Reduces the amount of change from the set point
132
Where are the receptors for negative feedback
Anywhere in the body, detect the change (in blood glucose levels, oxygen levels, co2 levels etc) 
133
Wheres the control centre for negative feedback
Brain, hypothalamus and pancreas
| Detects change sent from receptors and sends it to the effectors
134
What do effectors do
Respond to change (make the change) 
135
What happens to the set point in positive feedback
Responses move further from the set point, change from set point gets larger
136
What produces unstable conditions in the body
Positive feedback
137
What type of feedback is breastfeeding
Positive feedback
138
 what are the tissue types
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
139
where is the simple squamous tissue
Alveolar membranes to allow things to move through them
| Very flat
140
Where is stratified squamous tissue
Skin, inside of mouth or anywhere you can lose lots of cells
141
Where is the transitional epithelial tissue
Bladder
| Can go down really small but when filled up with something, it can stretch out again
142
What are epithelial tissue types
Simple squamous, stratified squamous, simple cuboidal, stratified cuboidal, simple columnar, transitional
143
What type of tissue is blood
Fluid connective tissue
144
What is the most abundant tissue in the body
Connective tissue
145
What makes different types of connective tissue
Bone, cartilage, fat, blood, tendons, ligaments
146
What are the two types of connective tissue
Loose and dense
147
What are the muscle tissue types
Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
148
What muscle tissue is voluntarily controlled
Skeletal 
149
What muscle tissue is involuntary controlled
Cardiac and smooth
150
What is the wave motion when you eat something and it goes down the oesophagus
Peristalsis
151
What muscle do you need lots of energy for
Skeletal muscle
152
Which muscle tissue has more mitochondria and nuclei
Skeletal
153
What’s the difference in shape with smooth and skeletal muscle
Smooth is very flat and spindle-shaped
| Skeletal is very striated
154
What muscle tissue is branching into each other
Cardiac
155
What muscle tissue is intercalated
Cardiac
156
What muscle tissue contracts quickly and relaxes quickly
Skeletal
157
What muscle tissue contract slowly and relaxes slowly
Smooth
158
What is mitosis
Normal cell division
| Part of growth and development getting two identical cells
159
What controls growth and development
Mitosis
160
What is meiosis
Happens when forming of gametes (sperm and egg) 
161
How many chromosomes do you have in meiosis
23 daughter cells, all genetically different
162
What’s division involves half a number of chromosomes
Meiosis
163
Is diffusion a passive or active process
Passive
164
What is diffusion in the lungs
Breathe oxygen in, oxygen defuses across the alveolar membrane and into the bloodstream
Going from high concentration in the lungs to lower concentration in the bloodstream
165
Is filtration a passive or active process
Passive
166
Is facilitated diffusion passive or active process
Passive
167
What’s the difference between facilitated diffusion and diffusion
In facilitated diffusion you need a carrier protein to allow things to go through the barrier (cell membrane)
168
Is active transport passive or active process
Active because it’s going from a low concentration to a high to allow action potential take place 
169
Is osmosis active or passive
Passive, relies on a semipermeable membrane
170
What’s the difference between osmosis and filtration
Filtration is pushing out, osmosis is pulling back in to create that balance
171
What is DNA made up into
Genes 
172
What’s on chromosomes
Genes
173
What’s an allele
Two copies from every gene
174
What’s the difference between dominant and recessive genes
If you have a dominant gene, you only need one copy for it to show
175
What is a recessive gene disorder
Cystic fibrosis
176
What’s the correct order for heart conduction
```
SA node
AV node
Bundle of his
Left and right bundle branches
Purkinje fibres
```
177
Order of pulmonary circulation
Deoxygenated blood comes from the vena caval to the right atrium, through the atrioventricular valve, to the right ventricle, ventricles contract and pushes blood to the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary arteries and into the lungs
178
Order of systemic circulation
Oxygenated blood comes from the lungs through the pulmonary veins, into the left atrium, through the mitral valve, to the ventricle, when ventricle contracts it goes to the aortic valve and out through the aorta and around the body
179
How does the heart supply blood to itself
Coronary arteries
180
Order of oxygen going from mouth to lungs
Mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs
181
What muscle do you use a normal breathing
Diaphragm
182
What does the skin help produce
Vitamin D in exposure to sunlight
183
What is melanin
Produced by melanocytes, helps darken skin
184
What’s the joint and function of elbows and knees
Hinge joint, allows flexion and extension along one plane
185
What is the joint and function of hip
Ball and socket, allow rotational movement
186
What is the Joint and function of tarsal bone
Gliding/plane joint, allow twisting movement
187
What is the joint and function of trapezium carpal and first metacarpal bone
Saddle joint, allow angular movements
188
What’s the joint and function between radius and carpal bones of the wrist
Condyloid joint, allows angular movement along 2 axes
189
What’s the joint and function between C1 and C2 vertebral 
Pivot joint, allows rotational movement
190
What’s the difference between somatic and automatic nervous system
Somatic you have control over
| Autonomic you don’t have control over
191
What is the autonomic nervous system divided into
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
192
What is the sympathetic nervous system
Fight or flight, revving everything up and get ready for action
193
What is the parasympathetic nervous system
Rest and digest, calms you down
194
What is the sensory nervous system
Eyes, senses, touch receptors, everything thats sending information to the spine and brain
195
What’s the motor nervous system
Controls everything, reflex action, conscious movement
196
Difference in cells in the nervous and endocrine system
Nervous - neurones
| Endorine – epithelial and other
197
Difference in chemical signals in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – neurotransmitter
| Endocrine – hormones
198
Difference in specificity of response in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – receptors on postsynaptic cell
| Endocrine - receptors on target cell
199
Speed in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – seconds
| Endocrine – seconds to hours
200
Duration of action in nervous and endocrine system
Nervous – very brief on this neuronal activity continues
| Endocrine – maybe brief or may last for days even if secretion ceases
201
What’s the cell body in a neuron
Cells life support centre
202
What’s the dendrites in the neuron
Connects to other neurons, receive messages from other cells
203
What’s the axon in a neuron
The lead that goes the terminal branches, passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands
204
What’s the myelin sheath do in a neuron
Plays a role in speed of transmission on that axon
205
What happens if you touch something hot
Signal goes from the spine to the hand allowing it to pull away before it goes the brain
Receptor, sensory neuron, motoneuron, effector 
206
What is action potential
Nerve transmission taking place
| Action potentials exist in their parts nerve response
207
What is referred pain
Pain originating from stimulation in one part of the body but felt in another part
208
How does referred pain arise
Merging common nerve pathways and cerebral cortex incorrectly interprets the source of pain
209
What’s the stages of development order
Neonatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, senescence
210
What does the lymphatic system filter
Blood
211
What does prothrombin get converted into
Thrombin
212
What does fibrogen and get converted into
Loose fibrin threads
213
What does a loose fibrin threads get converted into
Stabilised fibrin clot
214
What are non-specific immunity
```
Phagocytic cells (monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils)
- all white blood cells
```
215
What are adaptive immunity
B and T cells
Specific to each type of invader
Allows us to develop resistance to specific microorganisms
216
What are the interdependent components of adaptive immunity
Cell mediated immunity – T cells
| Humoural immunity – B cells
217
What do T cells do
Attack pathogens directly
218
What do B cells do
Produce antibodies
219
Can adaptive immunity be active or passive
Both
220
What do t lymphocytes do
Attack nonself materials directly, particularly effective against antigens of fungi, bacteria, viruses, parasites, foreign tissue transplants and abnormal cells
221
What do B cells do
Carry antibodies
| Fighting things at long range – attacking pathogen via the antibodies
222
What do b and T cells make
Memory cells
223
What’s autoimmunity
Attack of self antigens by immune system
| B cells produce antibodies to attack own cells
224
Wheres the elementary canal start and finish
Mouth to anus
225
Where does peristalsis start and finish
After larynx to the rectum
226
What’s the three key points of the formation of urine
Filtration
Selective reabsorption
Secretion or tubular secretion
227
What are the normal constituents of urine
Water, urea, drugs, alcohol
228
What are the abnormal constitutes of urine
Glucose, blood, protein
229
What are the formed elements of blood
Erythrocytes, leucocytes, thrombocytes
230
What is the liquid portion of blood called
Plasma
231
Why do we need five different leucocytes
They all have different jobs
232
What are granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
233
What are agranulocytes
Monocytes and lymphocytes
234
What do neutrophils do
Protect against foreign materials and remove waste
| They engulf and kill microbes by phagatosis 
235
What do eosinophils do
Are capable of phagatosis 
Eliminate parasites such as worms which are too big to be phagoctosed
Release toxic chemicals
236
What do basophils do
Promote information with heparin and histamine
| Associated with allergic reactions
237
What are monocytes
Large molecular cells that originate in bone marrow
Some Motile and phagocytic
Some develop into macrophages
Produce interleukin 1
238
What are lymphocytes
Smaller than monocytes and have a large nuclei
Present and lymphatic tissue
Tcells directly attack other cells
B cells release antibodies
Natural killer cells are similar to T cells but non-specific
239
What’s the function of haemoglobin
Essential in transferring oxygen in blood from the lungs to the tissues
Combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
Also involved in transport of carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs for excretion
240
How many atoms of iron ore on each haemoglobin molecule
4
241
What blood group is compatible with group A as a donor
Group A and AB
242
What blood group is compatible with group B as a donor
Group B and AB
243
What blood group is compatible with group AB as a donor
Group AB
244
What blood group is compatible with group O as a donor
Universal donor
245
What blood group is compatible with group A as a recipient
Group A and O
246
What blood group is compatible with group B as a recipient
Group B and O
247
What blood group is compatible with group AB as a recipient
Universal recipient
248
What blood group is compatible with group O as a recipient
Group O
249
What blood group makes anti b
Group a
250
What blood group makes anti a
group b
251
What blood group makes anti a and b
Group o
252
What blood group doesn’t make anti a or b
Group ab
253
What antigen does blood group O have
No antigens
254
What antigen does blood group a have
A antigens
255
What antigen does blood group AB have
A and b antigens
256
What antigen does blood group B have
B antigens
257
Where are antibodies located in the blood
Plasma
258
What are the four steps in a blood clot (heamostasis)
Vasoconstriction
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation
Fibrinolysis 
259
what’s happens during vasoconstriction
When platelets are in contact with a damaged blood vessel, their surface becomes sticky and they adhere to the damaged wall
They release sterotonin which constricts the vessel, reducing flow of blood through it
260
What happens during the platelet plug formation
Adherent platelets clump to each other and release Adenosine diphosphate which attract more platelets to the site
261
What happens during coagulation
Fibrin traps the blood cells and is stronger than the platelet plug
In the final stages of this prothrombin activator acts on the plasma protein prothrombin converting it to thrombin
Thrombin then acts on fibrinogen and converts it to fibrin
262
What’s the difference in extrinsic and intrinsic pathway
Extrinsic is more rapid, intrinsic is slower
263
What happens during fibrinolysis
After the clot is formed, the process of removing and healing begins
Plasmin initiates the breakdown of fibrin to soluble products that are removed by phagocytosis 
264
What is the role of fibrin, prothrombin and thrombin
Prothrombin is transported into thrombin
| Thrombin acts to transform fibrinogen into fibrin which forms the blood clot
265
What’s the difference between thrombus and embolus
Thrombus is the little bits in the blood vessel that stick together on the vessel and cause a blockage therefore creates the clot in the vessel
Embolus can be something that has broken off, or something large enough to float around or it has been allowed to get in the vessel and goes around until it gets stuck and creates a blockage
266
What is the lymph
A clear watery fluid
267
What does lymph do in the body
Transports plasma proteins that seep out of the capillaries beds back to the bloodstream
Carries away larger particles which can then be filtered out and destroyed by lymph nodes
268
What part does the lymphatic system play in protecting the body
Lymphatic system is part of the immune system, it produces and release lymphocytes that destroy foreign invaders
269
What is the immune response
A Reaction of the body in response to the presence of a foreign substance
270
What are antibodies and what role do they play
Large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralise foreign objects
271
How do t and B cells become activated
The lymphocyte is manufactured in the bone marrow. Once released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow, lymphocytes are processed into T-lymphocyte and B-lymphocyte
272
What’s the difference between humoral and cellular immune response
Humoral immunity protects the body against extracellular pathogens and their toxins
Cell mediated immunity protects the body against intracellular pathogens
273
What’s the difference between active and passive immunity
Active immunity occurs when our own immune system is responsible for protecting us from a pathogen
Passive immunity occurs when we are protected from the pathogen by immunity gained from someone else
274
What’s the primary and secondary immune response
The primary immune response displays the face contact of the immune system with the infectious agent, whereas all following contacts with the same pathogen are secondary immune response
275
What are the benefits of vaccinations
Retain the antigenic properties that stimulate the development of immunity but don’t cause the disease
Diseases can be prevented by artificial immunisation
276
What is hypersensitivity
Powerful immune response to an antigen that is usually harmless
Causes damage to the body
Responses are exaggerated versions of normal immune functions
Can be mild or extreme and could cause death from anaphylactic shock
277
What’s autoimmune disease
Body fails to recognise own tissues and attacks itself
278
What are the layers of the skin
Epidermis and dermis
279
Functions of the skin
```
Protection
Regulation of body temperature
Formation of vitamin D
Sensation
Absorption
 excretion
```
280
What conditions are required for wound healing
Systemic factors – good nutritional status and general health
Local factors – good blood supply providing oxygen and nutrients and removing waste products, freedom from contamination
281
What’s the difference between primary and secondary healing
Primary – method of healing follows minimal destruction of tissues
Secondary – method of healing following destruction of large amount of tissue
282
What’s the repair process for wound healing
Inflammation
Proliferation
Maturation 
283
How are long, short and irregular bones developed
From rods of cartilage, cartilage models
284
How are flat bones developed
From membrane models
285
How are sesamoid bones developed
From tendon models
286
What are the processes of bone development
Secretion by osteoblasts of osteoid
| Calcification of osteoid immediately after its deposition
287
When is bone growth complete
When cartridges become completely ossified
288
Why do we need tendons and ligaments
Tendons connect muscle to bone, allowing us to move and ligaments help hold things in place
289
What do you ligaments connect
Bone to bone to form joints
290
What do tendons connect
Muscle to bone to allow movement
291
What’s the function of the red bone marrow
Involved in production of blood cells
292
What’s the function of yellow bone marrow
Importance of fat in storage
293
What bone marrow is in the medullary canal
Yellow
294
What bone marrow is in the cancellous bone
Red
295
What makes the muscles contract
Muscle contraction is triggered when an action potential travels along the nerves to the muscles
296
What are the cells that make up the nervous system
Neuron and neuroglia
297
What do neurons have characteristics of
Irritability and conductivity
298
What are the three parts of a neuron
Cell body
Axon
Dendrites
299
How does information travel between neurons
Through the release of chemical substances into the space between the axon and the dendrites
300
 what is a neuron supported by
Neuroglia (connective tissue)
301
What regions make up the human brain
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
302
What are the parts of the brain
Cerebrum
Brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
Cerebellum
303
What are the receptors in the human body
 chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors Mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, sensory receptors
304
How does sensation arise
When action potentials are generated by sensory receptors on the dendrites of the neurons, they are transmitted to the spinal cord. Impulses pass to the brain or reflex arcs in the spinal cord
305
How is sense of pain produced and perceived
Sensory receptors send messages to spinal cord and brain stem and then onto the brain where sensation of pain is registered, info is processed and pain is perceived
306
Structure of a reflex arc
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Sensory receptor
Sensory neurone
Control centre
Motor neurone
Effector target
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307
How do hormones act on the body
Chemical messages
| Hormones communicate with the body by heading towards the target cell to bring about change
308
How are hormones controlled
Endocrine system keeps hormones and that affect us on the right level through feedback loops
Release of hormones is regulated by other hormones, proteins and neuronal signals
309
What’s the general function of the digestive system
To break down and absorb nutrients from food and liquid
310
What is the role of the kidney in the control of blood pressure
Increases blood pressure
| Plays a role in water balance by controlling sodium and reabsorption of salt through the kidneys
311
What hormones are involved in regulation of urine concentration volume
Anti-diuretic hormone ( produced by pituitary gland)
312
How is urine produced
Nephrons of the kidneys process blood and create urine through a process of filtration, reabsorption and secretion
313
What is micturition
Autonomic afferent fibres convey impulses to the bladder causing contraction of the Detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter (having a wee)
314
How is micturition controlled
By nervous signals both from somatic and autonomic nervous system
315
Function of the renal artery in kidney
Transports oxygenated blood from the heart and aorta to the kidney for filtration
316
Function of the renal vein in the kidney
Transports filtered and deoxygenated blood from kidney to the posterior vena Cava and then heart
317
Functions of the renal column in the kidney
A passageway located between the renal pyramids found in the medulla and used as a space for blood vessel
318
Function of nephron in the kidney
The physiological unit of the kidney used for filtration of blood and re-absorption and secretion of materials
319
Function of the capsule in the kidney
The outer membrane that encloses, supports and protects the kidney
320
Function of the cortex in the kidney
Outer layer of the kidney that contains most of the nephron; main site of filtration, re-absorption and secretion
321
Function of the medulla in the kidney
Inner core of the kidney, bottom of nephron goes into this area
Salt, water and urea is reabsorbed
322
Function of the renal pyramid in the kidney
Helping to concentrate salts and reserve water – plays a role in the reabsorption process
323
Function of the renal papilla in the kidney
Urine gets taken from the nephron and into the ureter
| Also in conjunction with the calyx
324
Function of the calyx in the kidney
A collecting sac that transports urine from the papilla to the renal pelvis
325
What’s the function of the ureter in the kidney
Transports urine from renal pelvis to the bladder
326
What is the glomerulus
Site for blood filtration
327
Functions of the kidney
Kidneys form urine which pass through the uterus to the bladder for storage prior to excretion
328
Function of the urinary bladder
A Reservoir for urine
|  in pelvic cavity but when distended, it rises into the abdominal cavity
329
Functions of the Urethra
Allows urine to pass outside the body
330
What are the fluid compartments
Intercellular, extracellular, Interstitial 
331
How do you water and electrolytes move between compartments
Osmosis
332
If something is further away from a point of attachment to a limb or origin of the body compared to another it is said to be:
Distal
333
Breathing rate is most likely to decrease if the blood level of what decreases
Carbon dioxide
334
Where are the vocal chords located
Larynx
335
What protein makes up part of the red blood cell which carries oxygen throughout the body
Haemoglobin
336
What type of blood do arteries in the systemic circulation deal with
Oxygenated blood
337
A normal immune response requires what cells
Both T and B cells
338
Will antibody concentration be higher or lower during the second encounter with the same antigen
Higher
339
What type of tissue is cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle
Muscle tissue
340
 when will water moves out of the cell
If impermanent solutes are present in lower concentration in intercellular fluid
341
What type of cell is responsible for making skin darken on exposure to sunlight
Melanocytes
342
What muscle is in voluntary, one nuclei Per cell, multibranched
Cardiac
343
What muscle is voluntary, multinucleated, striated
Skeletal muscle
344
What nervous system is responsible for the fight or flight response
sympathetic nervous system
345
What does in insulin cause
A decrease in the concentration of blood glucose
346
What phase of gastric function is conditioned reflex to sight and smell of food
Cephalic phase
347
What phase of the gastric function stimulated by food in the stomach releases the hormone gastrin
The gastic phase
348
What is hydrostatic and osmotic pressure responsible for
Movement of water and electrolytes between fluid compartments
349
Why children have higher fluid requirements than adults
The children has a higher surface area to body mass ratio
350
What is passive aging
Structure breakdown on a molecular level
Slowing function
Elastin and college’s degenerates
Free radicals damage cells
351
What is active ageing
Normal growth and development
| Also ties in with auto-immunity
352
Risks of ageing
Immune system becomes less able to manage infection
Vessels and coronary arteries become less able to flex and stretch
Effects cardiovascular health
Less able to heal and repair
353
What’s the role on salivary glands
Secreate saliva to moisten food particles, help bind them and begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates
Saliva dissolves food so that they can be tasted and cleanses mouth and teeth
354
Role of the liver
Carbohydrate metabolism - Maintains concentration of blood glucose
Lipid metabolism -oxidising fatty acids, synthesising lipoproteins, phospholipids and cholesterol
355
Role of the gall bladder
Stores bile between meals
| Reabsorbs water to concentrate bile and contracts to release bile in the small intestine
356
Role of the pancreas
Secretion of pancreatic juice
| Breaks triglyceride molecule into fatty acids and glycerol
357
Role of the mouth
Mechanically breaks up solid particles into smaller pieces mixing them with saliva
358
Role of the pharynx
A cavity posterior to the mouth from which the tubular oesophagus leads to the stomach
Important passageways and muscular walls function swallowing
359
Role of oesophagus
Food passageway from the pharynx to the stomach
| Goes to the stomach on the abdominal side of the diaphragm
360
Role of stomach
Receives food from oesophagus, mixes with gastric juices, initiates protein digestion, carries on limited absorption and moves food into small intestine
361
Role of small intestine
Receives chyme from the stomach and secretions from the pancreas and liver
Completes digestion in the nutrients of chyme, absorbs products of digestion and transports the residues to the large intestine
362
Role of large intestine
Absorbs water and electrolytes from chyme remaining in the elementary canal
Forms and stores faeces
363
Which kidney is lower
Right kidney is lower than left
364
What do fibroblast produce
Collagen fibres
365
What muscle tissue is multinucleated
Skelletal
366
What secretes hormones from the sympathetic nervous system
Adrenal medulla
