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All Biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Describe the organisation levels of the human body

A 
Atom
Molecule
Macromolecule
Organelle 
Cell 
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
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2
Q

What does the plasma membrane consist of

A

2 layers of phospholipids with protein molecules embedded in them

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3
Q

What does the head of the phospholipid molecule have

A

Electrically charged and hydrophilic

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4
Q

What does the tail of the phospholipid molecule have

A

No charge and hydrophobic

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5
Q

How is the phospholipid bilayer arranged

A

The hydrophilic heads aligned on the outer surface of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails form the central water repelling layer

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6
Q

What’s the largest organelle

A

The nucleus, this is contained within membrane similar to the plasma membrane but has tiny pores which some substances can pass between it and the cytoplasm

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7
Q

What does the nucleus contain

A

The body’s genetic material which directs activities of the cell

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8
Q

What forms chromatin

A

DNA and proteins called histones coiled together

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9
Q

During cell division what does chromatin become

A

Chromatin replicates and becomes more tightly coiled forming chromosomes

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10
Q

What are the functional subunits of chromosomes called

A

Genes

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11
Q

What are the organelles in eukaryotic cell

A

Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, macrofilaments and microtubules

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12
Q

What shape is the mitochondria

A

Sausage shape

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13
Q

Where is the mitochondria located

A

In the cytoplasm

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14
Q

What’s the powerhouse of the cell

A

Mitochondria

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15
Q

What does the mitochondria do

A

Involved in aerobic respiration, the process by which chemical energy is made available in the cell (ATP)

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16
Q

What does ATP do in the mitochondria

A

Releases energy when the cell breaks it down

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17
Q

When is synthesis of ATP most efficient

A

In the final stages of aerobic respiration, a process requiring oxygen

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18
Q

What are ribosomes

A

Tiny granules composed of RNA and protein

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19
Q

How do ribosomes synthesise proteins?

A

From amino acids, using RNA as the template

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20
Q

When do the ribosomes make protein

A

When present in free units or in small clusters in the cytoplasm

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21
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum

A

A series of interconnecting membranous canals in the cytoplasm

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22
Q

What does the smooth ER do

A

Synthesises lipids abs steroid hormones

Associated with detoxification of some drugs

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23
Q

What does the rough ER do

A

Synthesises proteins that are exported from the cell

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24
Q

What does the Golgi apparatus consist of

A

Stacks of closely folded membranous sacs

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25
Q

What does the Golgi apparatus do

A

Proteins move from the ER to the Golgi apparatus where they are packaged into the membrane bound vesicles called secretory glands

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26
Q

What do the vesicles do in the Golgi apparatus

A

The are stored

When needed, they move to the plasma membrane through which the protein is exported

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27
Q

What are lysosomes

A

One type of secretory vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus

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28
Q

What do the lysosomes contain

A

A variety of enzymes involved in breaking down fragments or organelles and large molecules inside the cell into smaller particles that are either recycled or extruded from the cell as waste material

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29
Q

What blood cells are lysosomes in

A

White blood cells - contain enzymes that digest foreign material such as microbes

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30
Q

What are microfilaments

A

Tiny strands of protein that provide structural support and maintain the characteristic shape of the cell

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31
Q

What are microtubules

A

Contractile protein structures in the cytoplasm involves in the movement of the cell, the movement of cilia and the organisation of proteins in the plasma membrane

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32
Q

What are the core requirements for the human to live

A

Pressure
Heat
Food
Oxygen water

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33
Q

What are the body cavities

A

Cranial
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic

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34
Q

What cavity is the brain in

A

Cranial, it’s boundaries are formed by the bones of the skull

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35
Q

Where is the thoracic cavity situated

A

In the upper part of the trunk. It’s boundaries are formed by bony framework and support muscles

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36
Q

What organs are in the thoracic cavity

A 
The trachea, 2 bronchi, 2 lungs 
The heart, aorta, superior + inferior vena cava, numerous other blood vessels 
Oesophagus 
Lymph vessels and lymph nodes
Nerves
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37
Q

What’s the largest cavity in the body

A

Abdominal cavity

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38
Q

What shapes the abdominal cavity

A

Oval

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39
Q

Where is the abdominal cavity situated

A

Main part of the trunk (decided into 9 regions)

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40
Q

What organs are in the abdominal cavity

A

Stomach, small intestine and most of large intestine
Spleen
2 kidney, upper part of uterus
2 adrenal glands
Numerous blood vessels, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, neves

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41
Q

What shape is the pelvic cavity

A

Funnel shaped

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42
Q

Where is the pelvic cavity situated

A

Extends from the lower end of the abdominal cavity

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43
Q

What organs are in the pelvic cavity

A

Sigmoid colon, rectum, Anus
Some loops of small intestine
Urinary bladder, lower parts of the uterus and urethra

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44
Q

What organs are the respiratory system

A

Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 2 bronchi, brochiolious and smaller air passages, 2 lungs and their coverings, the pleura

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45
Q

Organs of the digestive system (alimentary tract)

A

Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

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46
Q

Organs of the digestive system (accessory organs)

A

3 pairs of salivary glands, pancreas, liver and biliary tract

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47
Q

What are the glands/organs in the endocrine system

A 
Hypothalamus 
1 pituitary glands
1 thyroid gland
4 parathyroid glands
2 adrenal glands
1 pineal gland
2 ovaries (female)
2 testes (male)
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48
Q

What are the main parts of the nervous system

A

Central nervous system

Peripheral nervous system

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49
Q

What does medial mean

A

Structure nearer to the surface (heart is medial to humerus)

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50
Q

What’s lateral mean

A

Structure if further from the midline or at the side of the body ( humerus is lateral to the heart)

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51
Q

What does proximal mean

A

Nearer to a point of attachment (femur is proximal to fibular)

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52
Q

What’s does distal mean

A

Further from the point of attachment (fibular is distal to femur)

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53
Q

What does anterior or ventral mean

A

Part of the body being described is nearer the front of the body (sternum is anterior to vertebrae)

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54
Q

What does posterior or dorsal mean

A

Part of the body being described is nearer the back of the body (vertebrae is posterior to sternum)

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55
Q

What does superior mean

A

Structure nearer to the head (skull or posterior to scapulae)

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56
Q

What does inferior mean

A

Structure further from the head (scapulae are inferior to the skull)

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57
Q

What does homeostasis mean

A

The composition of the internal environment is maintained within narrow limits (maintaining internal balance)

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58
Q

How is homeostasis maintained

A

By control systems which detect and respond to change

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59
Q

What are the 3 components of that he control system

A

Detector, control centre, effector

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60
Q

What does the control centre do

A

Determines the limits within which variable factor should be maintained. It receives an input from the receptor/sensor and integrates the incoming information

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61
Q

What happens when incoming signals indicates that an adjustment is needed

A

The control centre responds and it’s output to the effector is changed.

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62
Q

What feedback systems are present in the body

A

Positive and negative

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63
Q

What does the effector do if the system is controlled by negative feedback

A

It decreases or negates the effect of the original stimulus, restoring homeostasis

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64
Q

What type of feedback is blood clotting

A

Positive

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65
Q

What type of feedback is shivering when you’re cold

A

Negative

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66
Q

What type of feedback is uterine contractions during labour

A

Positive

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67
Q

What does the stimulus do in positive feedback

A

Progressively increases the response

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68
Q

When does homeostatic imbalance arise

A

When a fine control of a factor in the internal environment is inadequate and the level of the factor falls outside the normal range

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69
Q

What are the four phases of mitosis

A

Prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase

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70
Q

What’s happening at prophase

A

DNA gets organised into chromosomes

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71
Q

What’s happening at metaphase

A

Chromosomes get lined up into the middle of the cell

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72
Q

What’s happening at anaphase

A

Chromosomes get pulled apart

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73
Q

What’s happening at telephone is

A

Separate cell membranes

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74
Q

What’s happening at cytokinesis

A

Divide into two separate cells

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75
Q

What is happening at interphase

A

Cell isn’t dividing but is getting ready to potentially divide

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76
Q

Why do cells divide and specialise

A

Lifespan of most individual cells are limited, many become worn out and die and are replaced by identical cells by mitosis

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77
Q

What is the cardiac cycle

A

Atrial systole
ventricular systole
atrial and ventricular diastole

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78
Q

What happens at atrial systole

A

A wave of contraction that spreads over the myocardium of both atria, emptying the atrium and filling the ventricles

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79
Q

What happens at ventricular systole

A

A wave of contraction sweeps upwards from the apex of the heart and pulls the walls of the ventricles, pumping blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta

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80
Q

What happens at Atrial and ventricular diastole

A

Atria and ventricles are relaxed, during this time myocardium recovers until it contracts again and atria fill for the next cardiac cycle

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81
Q

What is an allele

A

Alternative forms of a gene for each variation of a trait of an organism (one from mum one from dad)

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82
Q

What is heterozygous

A

When there are two different alleles of that trait (Bb)

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83
Q

What are Homozygous

A

When there are two identical alleles for a trait (BB, bb)

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84
Q

How did two brown eyed people have a blue eyed baby

A

Because of the action of the dominant and recessive genes

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85
Q

What is the cell cycle

A

The cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides
The cell leaves interphase and undergoes mitosis (pmat)

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86
Q

How is a cardiac impulse initiated and conducted through the myocardium

A

The SA node triggers a wave of contraction that spreads over the myocardium of both atria

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87
Q

What is the SA node

A

Pacemaker of the heart - initiates impulses more rapidly

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88
Q

What’s the AV node do

A

Stimulated by impulses that sweep over the atrial myocardium

Initiate impulses that cause a contraction but slower than SA node

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89
Q

Where is the bundle of his

A

Crosses the fibrous ring that separate atria and ventricles

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90
Q

What are purkinje fibres

A

Fine fibres broken up from the bundle of his

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91
Q

What happens at the P-wave

A

Sinoatrial node is depolarising

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92
Q

What happens at the QRS complex

A

Ventricular depolarisation

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93
Q

What happens at the T wave

A

Ventricular repolarisation

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94
Q

What do the coronary veins do

A

Carry deoxygenated blood from the myocardium and empty them into the chambers of the heart

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95
Q

What do the coronary sinuses do

A

Responsible for draining most of the deoxygenated blood leaving the myocardium

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96
Q

What’s the difference between pulmonary and systemic circulation

A

Pulmonary moves blood between the heart and lungs

Systemic moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body

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97
Q

What organs make up the respiratory system

A

Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 2 bronchi, bronchioles, 2 lungs

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98
Q

What’s the mechanism of breathing

A

When you inhale, your diaphragm contracts and moves downwards, lungs expand and ribs pull outwards

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99
Q

Where does gas exchange occur in the respiratory system

A

Alveoli

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100
Q

 how does gas exchange occur in the alveoli

A

They are small sacs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
Capillaries are thin blood vessels in the walls of the alveoli

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101
Q

What factors control breathing

A

Carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, oxygen levels

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102
Q

What do coronary arteries do

A

Allow blood to flow to the heart muscle

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103
Q

What is hypoxia

A

Low oxygen levels

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104
Q

Why do you need food

A

Provides body with needed nutrients, needed for energy, raw building material for growth and repair, and to regulate chemical reactions

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105
Q

Why do you need oxygen

A

Used to release energy from food (1/5 or air, 21%) 

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106
Q

Why do you need heat

A

Product of metabolic reactions that controls reaction rate; temperature - measure of the degree of heat

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107
Q

Why do you need pressure

A

Atmospheric pressure is needed for breathing

Hydrostatic pressure is needed to move blood through the vessels

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108
Q

How does the respiratory and circulatory system interact with other body systems

A

To pump blood and oxygen around the body

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109
Q

What’s the difference between anatomy and physiology

A

Anatomy is the study of the structure, physiology is the study of the function

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110
Q

What is an atom

A

Simplest level (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon)

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111
Q

What is a molecule

A

Two or more atoms comprise a molecule

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112
Q

What is a macromolecule

A

Biologically important molecules inside a cell

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113
Q

What are organelles

A

Aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell

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114
Q

What’s a cell

A

The basic unit of structure and function for living things

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115
Q

What’s a tissue

A

Groups of cells functioning together

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116
Q

What are organs

A

Groups of tissues that have specialised functions

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117
Q

What does bilateral mean

A

Paired structures with one on each side

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118
Q

What does ipsilateral mean

A

Structures on the same side

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119
Q

What does contralateral mean

A

Structures on the opposite side

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120
Q

What does superficial mean

A

Near the surface

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121
Q

What does deep mean

A

More internal

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122
Q

What is the sagittal section

A

Divide the body into left and right positions. If it passes along the midline it is midsagittal section, a section lateral to the midline is parasagittal

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123
Q

What is a transverse section

A

Divided body into inferior and superior parts

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124
Q

What is a frontal section

A

Divide body into anterior and posterior sections

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125
Q

What can you find in the mediastinum cavity

A

Heart and a Oesophagus 

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126
Q

What’s in the plural cavity

A

Lungs

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127
Q

What is metabolism

A

Chemical reactions that are happening in the body to build things up or break things down to maintain homeostasis

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128
Q

What is anabolism

A

Build things up (protein etc)

Requires energy

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129
Q

What is catabolism

A

Breaks things down (digestive enzymes)

Produce energy

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130
Q

What happens to responses in negative feedback

A

Move in opposite direction from change

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131
Q

What happens to the set point in negative feedback

A

Reduces the amount of change from the set point

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132
Q

Where are the receptors for negative feedback

A

Anywhere in the body, detect the change (in blood glucose levels, oxygen levels, co2 levels etc) 

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133
Q

Wheres the control centre for negative feedback

A

Brain, hypothalamus and pancreas

Detects change sent from receptors and sends it to the effectors

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134
Q

What do effectors do

A

Respond to change (make the change) 

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135
Q

What happens to the set point in positive feedback

A

Responses move further from the set point, change from set point gets larger

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136
Q

What produces unstable conditions in the body

A

Positive feedback

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137
Q

What type of feedback is breastfeeding

A

Positive feedback

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138
Q

 what are the tissue types

A

Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue

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139
Q

where is the simple squamous tissue

A

Alveolar membranes to allow things to move through them

Very flat

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140
Q

Where is stratified squamous tissue

A

Skin, inside of mouth or anywhere you can lose lots of cells

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141
Q

Where is the transitional epithelial tissue

A

Bladder

Can go down really small but when filled up with something, it can stretch out again

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142
Q

What are epithelial tissue types

A

Simple squamous, stratified squamous, simple cuboidal, stratified cuboidal, simple columnar, transitional

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143
Q

What type of tissue is blood

A

Fluid connective tissue

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144
Q

What is the most abundant tissue in the body

A

Connective tissue

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145
Q

What makes different types of connective tissue

A

Bone, cartilage, fat, blood, tendons, ligaments

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146
Q

What are the two types of connective tissue

A

Loose and dense

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147
Q

What are the muscle tissue types

A

Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

148
Q

What muscle tissue is voluntarily controlled

A

Skeletal 

149
Q

What muscle tissue is involuntary controlled

A

Cardiac and smooth

150
Q

What is the wave motion when you eat something and it goes down the oesophagus

A

Peristalsis

151
Q

What muscle do you need lots of energy for

A

Skeletal muscle

152
Q

Which muscle tissue has more mitochondria and nuclei

A

Skeletal

153
Q

What’s the difference in shape with smooth and skeletal muscle

A

Smooth is very flat and spindle-shaped

Skeletal is very striated

154
Q

What muscle tissue is branching into each other

A

Cardiac

155
Q

What muscle tissue is intercalated

A

Cardiac

156
Q

What muscle tissue contracts quickly and relaxes quickly

A

Skeletal

157
Q

What muscle tissue contract slowly and relaxes slowly

A

Smooth

158
Q

What is mitosis

A

Normal cell division

Part of growth and development getting two identical cells

159
Q

What controls growth and development

A

Mitosis

160
Q

What is meiosis

A

Happens when forming of gametes (sperm and egg) 

161
Q

How many chromosomes do you have in meiosis

A

23 daughter cells, all genetically different

162
Q

What’s division involves half a number of chromosomes

A

Meiosis

163
Q

Is diffusion a passive or active process

A

Passive

164
Q

What is diffusion in the lungs

A

Breathe oxygen in, oxygen defuses across the alveolar membrane and into the bloodstream
Going from high concentration in the lungs to lower concentration in the bloodstream

165
Q

Is filtration a passive or active process

A

Passive

166
Q

Is facilitated diffusion passive or active process

A

Passive

167
Q

What’s the difference between facilitated diffusion and diffusion

A

In facilitated diffusion you need a carrier protein to allow things to go through the barrier (cell membrane)

168
Q

Is active transport passive or active process

A

Active because it’s going from a low concentration to a high to allow action potential take place 

169
Q

Is osmosis active or passive

A

Passive, relies on a semipermeable membrane

170
Q

What’s the difference between osmosis and filtration

A

Filtration is pushing out, osmosis is pulling back in to create that balance

171
Q

What is DNA made up into

A

Genes 

172
Q

What’s on chromosomes

A

Genes

173
Q

What’s an allele

A

Two copies from every gene

174
Q

What’s the difference between dominant and recessive genes

A

If you have a dominant gene, you only need one copy for it to show

175
Q

What is a recessive gene disorder

A

Cystic fibrosis

176
Q

What’s the correct order for heart conduction

A 
SA node
AV node
Bundle of his
Left and right bundle branches
Purkinje fibres
177
Q

Order of pulmonary circulation

A

Deoxygenated blood comes from the vena caval to the right atrium, through the atrioventricular valve, to the right ventricle, ventricles contract and pushes blood to the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary arteries and into the lungs

178
Q

Order of systemic circulation

A

Oxygenated blood comes from the lungs through the pulmonary veins, into the left atrium, through the mitral valve, to the ventricle, when ventricle contracts it goes to the aortic valve and out through the aorta and around the body

179
Q

How does the heart supply blood to itself

A

Coronary arteries

180
Q

Order of oxygen going from mouth to lungs

A

Mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs

181
Q

What muscle do you use a normal breathing

A

Diaphragm

182
Q

What does the skin help produce

A

Vitamin D in exposure to sunlight

183
Q

What is melanin

A

Produced by melanocytes, helps darken skin

184
Q

What’s the joint and function of elbows and knees

A

Hinge joint, allows flexion and extension along one plane

185
Q

What is the joint and function of hip

A

Ball and socket, allow rotational movement

186
Q

What is the Joint and function of tarsal bone

A

Gliding/plane joint, allow twisting movement

187
Q

What is the joint and function of trapezium carpal and first metacarpal bone

A

Saddle joint, allow angular movements

188
Q

What’s the joint and function between radius and carpal bones of the wrist

A

Condyloid joint, allows angular movement along 2 axes

189
Q

What’s the joint and function between C1 and C2 vertebral 

A

Pivot joint, allows rotational movement

190
Q

What’s the difference between somatic and automatic nervous system

A

Somatic you have control over

Autonomic you don’t have control over

191
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system divided into

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

192
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system

A

Fight or flight, revving everything up and get ready for action

193
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system

A

Rest and digest, calms you down

194
Q

What is the sensory nervous system

A

Eyes, senses, touch receptors, everything thats sending information to the spine and brain

195
Q

What’s the motor nervous system

A

Controls everything, reflex action, conscious movement

196
Q

Difference in cells in the nervous and endocrine system

A

Nervous - neurones

Endorine – epithelial and other

197
Q

Difference in chemical signals in nervous and endocrine system

A

Nervous – neurotransmitter

Endocrine – hormones

198
Q

Difference in specificity of response in nervous and endocrine system

A

Nervous – receptors on postsynaptic cell

Endocrine - receptors on target cell

199
Q

Speed in nervous and endocrine system

A

Nervous – seconds

Endocrine – seconds to hours

200
Q

Duration of action in nervous and endocrine system

A

Nervous – very brief on this neuronal activity continues

Endocrine – maybe brief or may last for days even if secretion ceases

201
Q

What’s the cell body in a neuron

A

Cells life support centre

202
Q

What’s the dendrites in the neuron

A

Connects to other neurons, receive messages from other cells

203
Q

What’s the axon in a neuron

A

The lead that goes the terminal branches, passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands

204
Q

What’s the myelin sheath do in a neuron

A

Plays a role in speed of transmission on that axon

205
Q

What happens if you touch something hot

A

Signal goes from the spine to the hand allowing it to pull away before it goes the brain
Receptor, sensory neuron, motoneuron, effector 

206
Q

What is action potential

A

Nerve transmission taking place

Action potentials exist in their parts nerve response

207
Q

What is referred pain

A

Pain originating from stimulation in one part of the body but felt in another part

208
Q

How does referred pain arise

A

Merging common nerve pathways and cerebral cortex incorrectly interprets the source of pain

209
Q

What’s the stages of development order

A

Neonatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, senescence

210
Q

What does the lymphatic system filter

A

Blood

211
Q

What does prothrombin get converted into

A

Thrombin

212
Q

What does fibrogen and get converted into

A

Loose fibrin threads

213
Q

What does a loose fibrin threads get converted into

A

Stabilised fibrin clot

214
Q

What are non-specific immunity

A 
Phagocytic cells (monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils) 
- all white blood cells
215
Q

What are adaptive immunity

A

B and T cells
Specific to each type of invader
Allows us to develop resistance to specific microorganisms

216
Q

What are the interdependent components of adaptive immunity

A

Cell mediated immunity – T cells

Humoural immunity – B cells

217
Q

What do T cells do

A

Attack pathogens directly

218
Q

What do B cells do

A

Produce antibodies

219
Q

Can adaptive immunity be active or passive

A

Both

220
Q

What do t lymphocytes do

A

Attack nonself materials directly, particularly effective against antigens of fungi, bacteria, viruses, parasites, foreign tissue transplants and abnormal cells

221
Q

What do B cells do

A

Carry antibodies

Fighting things at long range – attacking pathogen via the antibodies

222
Q

What do b and T cells make

A

Memory cells

223
Q

What’s autoimmunity

A

Attack of self antigens by immune system

B cells produce antibodies to attack own cells

224
Q

Wheres the elementary canal start and finish

A

Mouth to anus

225
Q

Where does peristalsis start and finish

A

After larynx to the rectum

226
Q

What’s the three key points of the formation of urine

A

Filtration
Selective reabsorption
Secretion or tubular secretion

227
Q

What are the normal constituents of urine

A

Water, urea, drugs, alcohol

228
Q

What are the abnormal constitutes of urine

A

Glucose, blood, protein

229
Q

What are the formed elements of blood

A

Erythrocytes, leucocytes, thrombocytes

230
Q

What is the liquid portion of blood called

A

Plasma

231
Q

Why do we need five different leucocytes

A

They all have different jobs

232
Q

What are granulocytes

A

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

233
Q

What are agranulocytes

A

Monocytes and lymphocytes

234
Q

What do neutrophils do

A

Protect against foreign materials and remove waste

They engulf and kill microbes by phagatosis 

235
Q

What do eosinophils do

A

Are capable of phagatosis 
Eliminate parasites such as worms which are too big to be phagoctosed
Release toxic chemicals

236
Q

What do basophils do

A

Promote information with heparin and histamine

Associated with allergic reactions

237
Q

What are monocytes

A

Large molecular cells that originate in bone marrow
Some Motile and phagocytic
Some develop into macrophages
Produce interleukin 1

238
Q

What are lymphocytes

A

Smaller than monocytes and have a large nuclei
Present and lymphatic tissue
Tcells directly attack other cells
B cells release antibodies
Natural killer cells are similar to T cells but non-specific

239
Q

What’s the function of haemoglobin

A

Essential in transferring oxygen in blood from the lungs to the tissues
Combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
Also involved in transport of carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs for excretion

240
Q

How many atoms of iron ore on each haemoglobin molecule

A

4

241
Q

What blood group is compatible with group A as a donor

A

Group A and AB

242
Q

What blood group is compatible with group B as a donor

A

Group B and AB

243
Q

What blood group is compatible with group AB as a donor

A

Group AB

244
Q

What blood group is compatible with group O as a donor

A

Universal donor

245
Q

What blood group is compatible with group A as a recipient

A

Group A and O

246
Q

What blood group is compatible with group B as a recipient

A

Group B and O

247
Q

What blood group is compatible with group AB as a recipient

A

Universal recipient

248
Q

What blood group is compatible with group O as a recipient

A

Group O

249
Q

What blood group makes anti b

A

Group a

250
Q

What blood group makes anti a

A

group b

251
Q

What blood group makes anti a and b

A

Group o

252
Q

What blood group doesn’t make anti a or b

A

Group ab

253
Q

What antigen does blood group O have

A

No antigens

254
Q

What antigen does blood group a have

A

A antigens

255
Q

What antigen does blood group AB have

A

A and b antigens

256
Q

What antigen does blood group B have

A

B antigens

257
Q

Where are antibodies located in the blood

A

Plasma

258
Q

What are the four steps in a blood clot (heamostasis)

A

Vasoconstriction
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation
Fibrinolysis 

259
Q

what’s happens during vasoconstriction

A

When platelets are in contact with a damaged blood vessel, their surface becomes sticky and they adhere to the damaged wall
They release sterotonin which constricts the vessel, reducing flow of blood through it

260
Q

What happens during the platelet plug formation

A

Adherent platelets clump to each other and release Adenosine diphosphate which attract more platelets to the site

261
Q

What happens during coagulation

A

Fibrin traps the blood cells and is stronger than the platelet plug
In the final stages of this prothrombin activator acts on the plasma protein prothrombin converting it to thrombin
Thrombin then acts on fibrinogen and converts it to fibrin

262
Q

What’s the difference in extrinsic and intrinsic pathway

A

Extrinsic is more rapid, intrinsic is slower

263
Q

What happens during fibrinolysis

A

After the clot is formed, the process of removing and healing begins
Plasmin initiates the breakdown of fibrin to soluble products that are removed by phagocytosis 

264
Q

What is the role of fibrin, prothrombin and thrombin

A

Prothrombin is transported into thrombin

Thrombin acts to transform fibrinogen into fibrin which forms the blood clot

265
Q

What’s the difference between thrombus and embolus

A

Thrombus is the little bits in the blood vessel that stick together on the vessel and cause a blockage therefore creates the clot in the vessel

Embolus can be something that has broken off, or something large enough to float around or it has been allowed to get in the vessel and goes around until it gets stuck and creates a blockage

266
Q

What is the lymph

A

A clear watery fluid

267
Q

What does lymph do in the body

A

Transports plasma proteins that seep out of the capillaries beds back to the bloodstream
Carries away larger particles which can then be filtered out and destroyed by lymph nodes

268
Q

What part does the lymphatic system play in protecting the body

A

Lymphatic system is part of the immune system, it produces and release lymphocytes that destroy foreign invaders

269
Q

What is the immune response

A

A Reaction of the body in response to the presence of a foreign substance

270
Q

What are antibodies and what role do they play

A

Large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralise foreign objects

271
Q

How do t and B cells become activated

A

The lymphocyte is manufactured in the bone marrow. Once released into the bloodstream from the bone marrow, lymphocytes are processed into T-lymphocyte and B-lymphocyte

272
Q

What’s the difference between humoral and cellular immune response

A

Humoral immunity protects the body against extracellular pathogens and their toxins
Cell mediated immunity protects the body against intracellular pathogens

273
Q

What’s the difference between active and passive immunity

A

Active immunity occurs when our own immune system is responsible for protecting us from a pathogen
Passive immunity occurs when we are protected from the pathogen by immunity gained from someone else

274
Q

What’s the primary and secondary immune response

A

The primary immune response displays the face contact of the immune system with the infectious agent, whereas all following contacts with the same pathogen are secondary immune response

275
Q

What are the benefits of vaccinations

A

Retain the antigenic properties that stimulate the development of immunity but don’t cause the disease
Diseases can be prevented by artificial immunisation

276
Q

What is hypersensitivity

A

Powerful immune response to an antigen that is usually harmless
Causes damage to the body
Responses are exaggerated versions of normal immune functions
Can be mild or extreme and could cause death from anaphylactic shock

277
Q

What’s autoimmune disease

A

Body fails to recognise own tissues and attacks itself

278
Q

What are the layers of the skin

A

Epidermis and dermis

279
Q

Functions of the skin

A 
Protection
Regulation of body temperature
Formation of vitamin D
Sensation
Absorption
 excretion
280
Q

What conditions are required for wound healing

A

Systemic factors – good nutritional status and general health
Local factors – good blood supply providing oxygen and nutrients and removing waste products, freedom from contamination

281
Q

What’s the difference between primary and secondary healing

A

Primary – method of healing follows minimal destruction of tissues
Secondary – method of healing following destruction of large amount of tissue

282
Q

What’s the repair process for wound healing

A

Inflammation
Proliferation
Maturation 

283
Q

How are long, short and irregular bones developed

A

From rods of cartilage, cartilage models

284
Q

How are flat bones developed

A

From membrane models

285
Q

How are sesamoid bones developed

A

From tendon models

286
Q

What are the processes of bone development

A

Secretion by osteoblasts of osteoid

Calcification of osteoid immediately after its deposition

287
Q

When is bone growth complete

A

When cartridges become completely ossified

288
Q

Why do we need tendons and ligaments

A

Tendons connect muscle to bone, allowing us to move and ligaments help hold things in place

289
Q

What do you ligaments connect

A

Bone to bone to form joints

290
Q

What do tendons connect

A

Muscle to bone to allow movement

291
Q

What’s the function of the red bone marrow

A

Involved in production of blood cells

292
Q

What’s the function of yellow bone marrow

A

Importance of fat in storage

293
Q

What bone marrow is in the medullary canal

A

Yellow

294
Q

What bone marrow is in the cancellous bone

A

Red

295
Q

What makes the muscles contract

A

Muscle contraction is triggered when an action potential travels along the nerves to the muscles

296
Q

What are the cells that make up the nervous system

A

Neuron and neuroglia

297
Q

What do neurons have characteristics of

A

Irritability and conductivity

298
Q

What are the three parts of a neuron

A

Cell body
Axon
Dendrites

299
Q

How does information travel between neurons

A

Through the release of chemical substances into the space between the axon and the dendrites

300
Q

 what is a neuron supported by

A

Neuroglia (connective tissue)

301
Q

What regions make up the human brain

A

Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe

302
Q

What are the parts of the brain

A

Cerebrum
Brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
Cerebellum

303
Q

What are the receptors in the human body

A

 chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors Mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, sensory receptors

304
Q

How does sensation arise

A

When action potentials are generated by sensory receptors on the dendrites of the neurons, they are transmitted to the spinal cord. Impulses pass to the brain or reflex arcs in the spinal cord

305
Q

How is sense of pain produced and perceived

A

Sensory receptors send messages to spinal cord and brain stem and then onto the brain where sensation of pain is registered, info is processed and pain is perceived

306
Q

Structure of a reflex arc

A 
Sensory receptor
Sensory neurone
Control centre
Motor neurone
Effector target
307
Q

How do hormones act on the body

A

Chemical messages

Hormones communicate with the body by heading towards the target cell to bring about change

308
Q

How are hormones controlled

A

Endocrine system keeps hormones and that affect us on the right level through feedback loops
Release of hormones is regulated by other hormones, proteins and neuronal signals

309
Q

What’s the general function of the digestive system

A

To break down and absorb nutrients from food and liquid

310
Q

What is the role of the kidney in the control of blood pressure

A

Increases blood pressure

Plays a role in water balance by controlling sodium and reabsorption of salt through the kidneys

311
Q

What hormones are involved in regulation of urine concentration volume

A

Anti-diuretic hormone ( produced by pituitary gland)

312
Q

How is urine produced

A

Nephrons of the kidneys process blood and create urine through a process of filtration, reabsorption and secretion

313
Q

What is micturition

A

Autonomic afferent fibres convey impulses to the bladder causing contraction of the Detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter (having a wee)

314
Q

How is micturition controlled

A

By nervous signals both from somatic and autonomic nervous system

315
Q

Function of the renal artery in kidney

A

Transports oxygenated blood from the heart and aorta to the kidney for filtration

316
Q

Function of the renal vein in the kidney

A

Transports filtered and deoxygenated blood from kidney to the posterior vena Cava and then heart

317
Q

Functions of the renal column in the kidney

A

A passageway located between the renal pyramids found in the medulla and used as a space for blood vessel

318
Q

Function of nephron in the kidney

A

The physiological unit of the kidney used for filtration of blood and re-absorption and secretion of materials

319
Q

Function of the capsule in the kidney

A

The outer membrane that encloses, supports and protects the kidney

320
Q

Function of the cortex in the kidney

A

Outer layer of the kidney that contains most of the nephron; main site of filtration, re-absorption and secretion

321
Q

Function of the medulla in the kidney

A

Inner core of the kidney, bottom of nephron goes into this area
Salt, water and urea is reabsorbed

322
Q

Function of the renal pyramid in the kidney

A

Helping to concentrate salts and reserve water – plays a role in the reabsorption process

323
Q

Function of the renal papilla in the kidney

A

Urine gets taken from the nephron and into the ureter

Also in conjunction with the calyx

324
Q

Function of the calyx in the kidney

A

A collecting sac that transports urine from the papilla to the renal pelvis

325
Q

What’s the function of the ureter in the kidney

A

Transports urine from renal pelvis to the bladder

326
Q

What is the glomerulus

A

Site for blood filtration

327
Q

Functions of the kidney

A

Kidneys form urine which pass through the uterus to the bladder for storage prior to excretion

328
Q

Function of the urinary bladder

A

A Reservoir for urine

 in pelvic cavity but when distended, it rises into the abdominal cavity

329
Q

Functions of the Urethra

A

Allows urine to pass outside the body

330
Q

What are the fluid compartments

A

Intercellular, extracellular, Interstitial 

331
Q

How do you water and electrolytes move between compartments

A

Osmosis

332
Q

If something is further away from a point of attachment to a limb or origin of the body compared to another it is said to be:

A

Distal

333
Q

Breathing rate is most likely to decrease if the blood level of what decreases

A

Carbon dioxide

334
Q

Where are the vocal chords located

A

Larynx

335
Q

What protein makes up part of the red blood cell which carries oxygen throughout the body

A

Haemoglobin

336
Q

What type of blood do arteries in the systemic circulation deal with

A

Oxygenated blood

337
Q

A normal immune response requires what cells

A

Both T and B cells

338
Q

Will antibody concentration be higher or lower during the second encounter with the same antigen

A

Higher

339
Q

What type of tissue is cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle

A

Muscle tissue

340
Q

 when will water moves out of the cell

A

If impermanent solutes are present in lower concentration in intercellular fluid

341
Q

What type of cell is responsible for making skin darken on exposure to sunlight

A

Melanocytes

342
Q

What muscle is in voluntary, one nuclei Per cell, multibranched

A

Cardiac

343
Q

What muscle is voluntary, multinucleated, striated

A

Skeletal muscle

344
Q

What nervous system is responsible for the fight or flight response

A

sympathetic nervous system

345
Q

What does in insulin cause

A

A decrease in the concentration of blood glucose

346
Q

What phase of gastric function is conditioned reflex to sight and smell of food

A

Cephalic phase

347
Q

What phase of the gastric function stimulated by food in the stomach releases the hormone gastrin

A

The gastic phase

348
Q

What is hydrostatic and osmotic pressure responsible for

A

Movement of water and electrolytes between fluid compartments

349
Q

Why children have higher fluid requirements than adults

A

The children has a higher surface area to body mass ratio

350
Q

What is passive aging

A

Structure breakdown on a molecular level
Slowing function
Elastin and college’s degenerates
Free radicals damage cells

351
Q

What is active ageing

A

Normal growth and development

Also ties in with auto-immunity

352
Q

Risks of ageing

A

Immune system becomes less able to manage infection
Vessels and coronary arteries become less able to flex and stretch
Effects cardiovascular health
Less able to heal and repair

353
Q

What’s the role on salivary glands

A

Secreate saliva to moisten food particles, help bind them and begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates
Saliva dissolves food so that they can be tasted and cleanses mouth and teeth

354
Q

Role of the liver

A

Carbohydrate metabolism - Maintains concentration of blood glucose
Lipid metabolism -oxidising fatty acids, synthesising lipoproteins, phospholipids and cholesterol

355
Q

Role of the gall bladder

A

Stores bile between meals

Reabsorbs water to concentrate bile and contracts to release bile in the small intestine

356
Q

Role of the pancreas

A

Secretion of pancreatic juice

Breaks triglyceride molecule into fatty acids and glycerol

357
Q

Role of the mouth

A

Mechanically breaks up solid particles into smaller pieces mixing them with saliva

358
Q

Role of the pharynx

A

A cavity posterior to the mouth from which the tubular oesophagus leads to the stomach
Important passageways and muscular walls function swallowing

359
Q

Role of oesophagus

A

Food passageway from the pharynx to the stomach

Goes to the stomach on the abdominal side of the diaphragm

360
Q

Role of stomach

A

Receives food from oesophagus, mixes with gastric juices, initiates protein digestion, carries on limited absorption and moves food into small intestine

361
Q

Role of small intestine

A

Receives chyme from the stomach and secretions from the pancreas and liver
Completes digestion in the nutrients of chyme, absorbs products of digestion and transports the residues to the large intestine

362
Q

Role of large intestine

A

Absorbs water and electrolytes from chyme remaining in the elementary canal
Forms and stores faeces

363
Q

Which kidney is lower

A

Right kidney is lower than left

364
Q

What do fibroblast produce

A

Collagen fibres

365
Q

What muscle tissue is multinucleated

A

Skelletal

366
Q

What secretes hormones from the sympathetic nervous system

A

Adrenal medulla

Uni Biology (8 decks)

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