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NAB > 8a. Motivation > Flashcards

8a. Motivation Flashcards

1
Q

2 Types of Motivation

A
  • Internal homeostatic drive

- External goal/incentive motivation

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2
Q

Internal Homeostatic Drive

- Definition

A

Motivation to correct deviations from physiological set points

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3
Q

Internal Homeostatic Drive

- Examples

A
  • Hunger
  • Thirst
  • Thermoregulation
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4
Q

Internal Homeostatic Drive

- Steps

A
  1. Input from sensors
  2. Integration to determine deviation from set point
  3. Output to correct deviation
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5
Q

Internal Homeostatic Drive

- Outputs

A
  • Endocrine
  • Autonomic
  • Behavioural
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6
Q

External Goal/Incentive Motivation

- Definition

A

External pull towards a goal/incentive rather than internal drive

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7
Q

External Goal/Incentive Motivation

- Examples

A
  • Sexual behaviour
  • Aggression
  • Competitive behaviour (running a race)
  • Feeding or drinking due to pleasant taste
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8
Q

External Goal/Incentive Motivation

- Steps

A
  1. Input from sensors
  2. Integration to determine value of incentive/goal
  3. Output to achieve goal/incentive
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9
Q

External Goal/Incentive Motivation

- Outputs

A
  • Endocrine
  • Autonomic
  • Behavioural
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10
Q

2 Types of Motivated Behaviour

A
  • Consummatory

- Appetitive

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11
Q

Consummatory Behaviour

- Defintion

A

Behaviours that involve interacting with the goal object directly.

  • Inflexible
  • Species/goal specific
  • Reflexive
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12
Q

Consummatory Behaviour

- Examples

A
  • Eating
  • Copulating
  • Drinking
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13
Q

Appetitive Behaviour

- Definition

A

Behaviours that involve the performance of a voluntary behaviour to seek out a goal

  • Flexible
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14
Q

Appetitive Behaviour

- Examples

A
  • Food searching
  • Lever pressing for delivery of a pleasant stimuli
  • Attracting and searching for a mate
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15
Q

Decerebration Experiments

A

Cut above the midbrain to remove the forebrain

Some motivational behaviours are intact:

  • Simple somato-motor reflexes
  • Taste differentiation
  • Hunger and satiety signals

Some motivational behaviours are lost

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16
Q

Hypothalamus

- Location

A

Ventro-rostral to the thalamus

Bordered rostrally by the optic chasm and caudally by the maxillary bodies

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17
Q

Hypothalamus

- Divisions

A

Medio-lateral divisions:

  • Lateral
  • medial
  • Pericentricular

Anterio-posterior divisions:

  • Anterior
  • Middle
  • Posterior
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18
Q

Hypothalamus

- Nuclei

A
  • Dorsomedial
  • Ventromedial
  • Lateral
  • Periventricular
  • Arcuate
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19
Q

Hypothalamus

- Inputs

A

Inputs carry information on internal state

  • Neural
  • Chemical
  • Temperature
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20
Q

Hypothalamus

- Neural Inputs

A

Brainstem

  • Somatic afferents
  • Visceral afferents

Forebrain

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21
Q

Hypothalamus

- Somatic Afferents

A

Don’t contain somatotopically organised information so don’t allow feature detection

Important in neuroendocrine reflexes:

  • Milk ejection
  • Stereotypical behaviours
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22
Q

Hypothalamus

- Visceral Afferents

A

Project form the nucleus of the solitary tract (NST) and reticular formation

Convey gustatory and olfactory information

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23
Q

Hypothalamus

- Forebrain Afferents

A

Originate from the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex

Convey information about motivation significance of external stimuli

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24
Q

Hypothalamus

- Chemical Inputs

A
  • Endocrine inputs

- Osmolality inputs

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25
Q

Hypothalamus

- Osmolality Inputs

A

Neurones in the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminals (OVLT) are sensitive to changes in osmolality, acting as osmoreceptors

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26
Q

Hypothalamus

- Temperature inputs

A

Neurones in the pre-optic area

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27
Q

Hypothalamus

- Outputs

A
  • Endocrine
  • Autonomic
  • Behavioural
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28
Q

Hypothalamus

- Endocrine Outputs

A

Stimulates hormone output from the pituitary:

  • Indirectly from the anterior pituitary
  • Directly from the posterior pituitary
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29
Q

Hypothalamus

- Behavioural Outputs

A

Consummatory behaviours via brainstem reflex circuits.

Plays no role in appetitive behaviour

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30
Q

Hypothalamus

- Autonomic Outputs

A

Innervates the NST in the brainstem, which acts upon other brainstem nuclei and spinal cord neurones to control pre-ganglionic autonomic neurones.

More elaborate homeostatic adjustments involve reciprocal connections between the NST and higher centres:

  • Amygdala
  • PVN of hypothalamus
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31
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Thermoregulation

- Location

A

POA

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32
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Thermoregulation

  • Motivation
  • Behaviours
A
  • Internal homeostatic drive

- Consummatory behaviours

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33
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Thermoregulation

- Cooling POA

A
  • Reflex shivering (consummatory)

- Lever pressing to receive warm air (appetitive)

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34
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Thermoregulation

- Warming POA

A
  • Reflex panting and grooming (consummatory)

- Lever pressing to receive cool air (appetitive)

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35
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Thermoregulation

- POA Lesions

A

Impairs consummatory thermoregulatory behaviours

  • Reflex panting and grooming
  • Reflex shivering

Does not impair appetitive thermoregulatory behaviours
- Lever pressing for thermoregulatory relief

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36
Q

Feeding

- Motivation

A
  • Internal homeostatic drives

- External goal/incentive drives

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37
Q

Feeding

- Types of Satiety Mechanisms

A
  • Short term

- Long Term

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38
Q

Feeding

- Short Term Satiety Mechanisms

A

Feedback mechanisms triggered by:

  • Tasting food
  • Smelling food
  • Swallowing food
  • Gastric distension following ingestion
  • Lipids in the duodenum (cholecystokinin)
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39
Q

Feeding

- Long Term Satiety Mechanisms

A
  • Nutrient reserves

- Leptin secretion

40
Q

Feeding

- Cholecystokinin

A

Released from duodenum when lipids are present in the lumen.

Acts on leptin receptors in the pylorus which transmit information via the vagus to the brainstem to reduce feeding

41
Q

Feeding

- Leptin Release

A

Peptide released by well-nourished adipose tissue

42
Q

Feeding

- Leptin Actions

A
  • Increase metabolic rate
  • Decrease food intake
  • Increase brain’s sensitivity to short term satiety signals such as cholecystokinin
43
Q

Feeding

- Leptin Discovery

A

Discovered in a stria of obese rats who could not produce leptin.
Daily leptin injections increase metabolic rate and activity.

44
Q

Feeding

- Neuropeptide Y Action

A

Signals hunger

45
Q

Feeding

- Neuropeptide Y Release

A

Neurones in the arcuate nucleus

  • Inhibited by leptin, which is present in well-fed state
  • Activates by Ghrelin
46
Q

Feeding

- Ghrelin Release

A

Empty stomach

47
Q

Feeding

- Ghrelin Action

A

Signals hunger

48
Q

Feeding

- Neuropeptide Y Actions

A

Promote feeding and preserve energy reserves

Acts on:

  • Lateral hypothalamus
  • Paraventricular nucleus
49
Q

Feeding

- Neuropeptide Y Actions on Lateral Hypothalamus

A

Increases production of:

  • Melanin concentrating hormone (MCH)
  • Orexin

Both hormones stimulate eating and reduce metabolic rate

MCH and orexin producing neurones project to:

  • Reticular formation
  • Periaqueductal grey
  • Thalamus
  • Locus coeruleus
50
Q

Feeding

- Neuropeptide Y Actions on Paraventricular Neurones

A
  • Decreases metabolic rate

- Decreases insulin production

51
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Feeding

- Location

A
  • Lateral hypothalamus

- Ventromedial hypothalamus

52
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Feeding

- Lateral hypothalamus Experiments

A

Lesions:
- Aphagia
- Adipsia
Lesioning also destroyed monoamine oxidase neurones in the medial forebrain bundle

Stimulation:
- Induces eating

Feeding centre sensitive to hunger

53
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Feeding

- Ventromedial Hypothalamus

A

Lesions:

  • Over-eating
  • Obesity

Lesioning also destroyed axons between the arcuate nucleus and other hypothalamic brainstem nuclei

Sensitive to satiety signals

54
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Feeding

  • Motivation
  • Behaviour
A
  • Internal homeostatic drive

- Consummatory behaviour

55
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Sexual Behaviour

- Behaviour

A
  • Consummatory behaviour
56
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Sexual Behaviour

- Location

A

Males:
- Androgen receptors in medial POA

Females:
- Progesterone receptors in ventromedial hypothalamus

57
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Sexual Behaviour

- Medial POA Lesions

A
  • Inhibits sexual copulatory behaviour (consummatory)
  • Excitement and lever pressing to receive a female remains (appetitive)
  • Appetitive behaviour remains
58
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Sexual Behaviour

- Castration

A
  • Inhibits copulatory behaviour (consummatory)
  • Inhibits excitement and lever pressing to receive a female (appetitive)

Therefore, testosterone is permissive for sexual behaviour

59
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Sexual Behaviour

- Ventromedial Hypothalamus Lesions

A
  • Impair female sexual behaviours
60
Q

Hypothalamus Role in Sexual Behaviour

- Ovarectomy

A
  • Inhibits female sexual behaviour

Therefore, sex steroids are permissive for sexual behaviour

61
Q

Amygdala

- Location

A

Anterior temporal lobe rostral to the hippocampus in the end wall of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle, adjacent to the olfactory cortex.

62
Q

Amygdala

- Divisions

A
  • Cortico-medial division
  • Central nucleus
  • Basolateral division
63
Q

Amygdala

- Inputs

A

Inputs carry information on external state, which often are conditioned stimuli that are predictive of rewards

64
Q

Amygdala

- Outputs

A
  • Endocrine
  • Autonomic
  • Behavioural
65
Q

Amygdala

- Behavioural Outputs

A

Appetitive behaviours

Plays no role in consummatory behaviours

66
Q

Amygdala

- Portico-Medial Division Nuclei

A
  • Cortical nucleus

- Medial nucleus

67
Q

Amygdala

- Corticomedial Division Afferents

A
  • Olfactory cortex

- Olfactory bulb

68
Q

Amygdala

- Corticomedial Divison Role

A

Olfaction and social and behavioural responses to pheromone secretion

69
Q

Amygdala

- Central Nucleus Afferents

A

Solitary tract

70
Q

Amygdala

- Central Nucleus Efferents

A

Major output of the amygdala

  • Hypothalamus
  • Brainstem
71
Q

Amygdala

- Central Nucleus Role

A

Control of:

  • Autonomic nervous system
  • Endocrine system
  • Simple motor reflexes
72
Q

Amygdala

- Basolateral Division Afferents

A

Higher-order sensory regions:

- Pre-frontal cortex

73
Q

Amygdala

- Basolateral Division Efferents

A

Project to regions involved in planning and action:

  • Pre-frontal cortex
  • Ventral striatum
  • orbitofrontal cortex

Can be direct, or indirect via the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus

74
Q

Amygdala

- 2 Efferent Pathways

A
  1. Ventral amygdalofugal pathway
    - Diffuse pathway coursing directly across the temporal stem
  2. Stria terminalis
    - Runs around the lateral ventricle in the groove between the caudate tail and thalamus
75
Q

Amygdala

- 2 Roles

A
  1. Assessment of motivational significance of stimuli in the basolateral nucleus
  2. Coordination of the output of a variety of response systems in the central nucleus
76
Q

Amygdala Role in Fear Conditioning

A

Conditioned stimulus and fear stimulus follow different brain pathways and converge onto individual neurones with the lateral nucleus of the basolateral division of the amygdala

Amygdala initiates emotional responses by:

  • Projections to the lateral hypothalamus to alter blood pressure
  • Projections to the paraventricular nucleus to alter hormone output
77
Q

Amygdala Role in Sexual Responses

A

Basolateral amygdala lesions inhibit lever pressing to obtain a female (appetitive), but don’t inhibit mounting and consumption when presented with a female (consummatory)

78
Q

Amygdala Role in Feeding

A

Basolateral amygdala lesions inhibit lever pressing to obtain food (appetitive), but don’t inhibit eating when presented with food (consummatory)

Human’s brain activity measured by PET scans increases in the amygdala when reading a greater incentive value menu

79
Q

Amygdala Role in Control of Voluntary Action

A

Basolateral amygdala identifies emotionally significant environmental cues and controls voluntary action by its output projections to the ventral striatum

80
Q

Ventral Striatum

- Location

A

Part of the basal ganglia including nucleus accumbens

Lies ventral to the head of the caudate and putamen nuclei, and rostral to the hypothalamus

81
Q

Dopaminergic Neurones

- Locations

A
  • Substantia nigra (A9)

- Ventral tegmental area (A10)

82
Q

Dopaminergic Neurones

- Projections

A
  • Ventral striatum
  • Amygdala
  • Orbito-frontal cortex
83
Q

Dopaminergic Neurones

- Lateral Hypothalamus Lesions

A

Lateral hypothalamus lesions damage the medial forebrain bundle, which contains dopamine projections to the striatum.

Some of this damage can be reversed by giving dopamine agonists

84
Q

Dopaminergic Neurones

- Selective Lesions

A

Selective lesions of the medial forebrain bundle are made using 6-OHDA.

Cause dopamine deflation within the striatum, causing:

  • Aphagia
  • Adipsia
  • Akinesia
85
Q

Ascending Activating System of the Reticular Formation

- 4 Pathways

A
  • Dopmine system
  • Noradrenaline system
  • Serotoninergic system
  • Cholinergic system
86
Q

Ascending Activating System of the Reticular Formation

- Pathway Activation

A

All 4 pathways are activated by motivationally charged environmental stimuli

Dopaminergic neurones may be modified by the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex

87
Q

Dopamine

- Role

A

Energises motivated behaviour, especially in preparation for action during appetitive behaviours

Dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens of the striatum increases during appetitive behaviour

88
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A

Selective neurodegeneration of dopaminergic neurones in subststantia nigra

Inability to initiate movement

89
Q

Dopamine

- Measurement

A

Dopamine transmission can be measured using micro dialysis.

90
Q

Dopaminergic Neurones

- Nucleus Accumbens Lesions

A

Loss of appetitive behaviours but intact consummatory behaviours.

91
Q

Dopaminergic Neurones

- Caudate and Putamen Lesions

A

Causes:

  • Aphagia
  • Adipsia
  • Akinesia

Loss of consummatory motivated behaviours

92
Q

Dorsal Striatum

- Nuclei

A

Contains caudate and putamen nuclei

93
Q

Dorsal Striatum

- Dopaminergic Neurones

A

Dopaminergic neurones in the substantia nigra project to the dorsal striatum, specifically to the caudate and putamen nuclei

94
Q

Dorsal Striatum

- Role

A
  • Activation of motor responses

- Sensory-motor integration

95
Q

Ventral Striatum

- Dopaminergic Neurones

A

Dopaminergic neurones in the ventral tegmental area project to the ventral striatum, specifically the nucleus accumbens

Dopamine is released in the presence of primary rewards and stimuli associated with them

96
Q

Ventral Striatum

- Nuclei

A

Nucleus accumbens

97
Q

Interaction Between External Drives and Internal Incentives

- Feeding

A

Orexin neurones in the hypothalamus are activated in hungry state to activate feeding

Orexin neurones give output to the ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area and amygdala, allowing the internal drives to alter significance of external incentives

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