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A-Level Biology > 6.2 Cloning and biotechnology > Flashcards

6.2 Cloning and biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

clone definition

A

genetically identical to their one parent

formed by asexual reproduction

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2
Q

cloning in eukaryotes

A

mitosis

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3
Q

cloning in prokaryotes

A

binary fission

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4
Q

examples of natural clones

A

animals: identical twins
plants: corms, leaves, suckers, bulbs, rhizomes, runners, tubers

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5
Q

cloning in plants / asexual reproduction

A

vegetative propagation

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6
Q

advantages of clones

A

quick (increased chance of population survival and genetic material being passed on, quicker evolution)
all offspring have genes to survive in environment (increased chance of survival)
possible when sexual reproduction fails/isnt possible (maintain population numbers)

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7
Q

disadvantages of clones in general

A

overcrowding (increased competition)

no genetic variation (susceptible to disease / sudden changes in environmental factors = population may die)

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8
Q

vegetative propagation definition

A

production of structures in an organism that can grow into new organisms, genetically identical to the parent (thus being clones)

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9
Q

how natural cloning in plants is possible

A

many parts of plants contain meristematic, undifferentiated tissue
can divide and differentiate to form a range of different cell types

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10
Q

runners, rhizomes and suckers features

A

plants grow horizontal stems
underground = rhizomes
on surface of ground = runners/stolens

Suckers = stems that grow from roots of plants

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11
Q

bulb features

A

underground stem grows into series of fleshy leaf bases

apical bulbs grows from it which grow into separate plants

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12
Q

corms features

A

underground stem with scaly leaves and buds
remain in ground over winter
in spring, buds grow to produce one or more new plants
solid

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13
Q

leaves in cloning features

A

clones grow on leaf margins

drop off leaf and take root

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14
Q

tubers features

A

underground stem
will grow into one or more plants
can produce many new tubers (potatoes) later that year

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15
Q

cloning in animals

A

identical twins
when zygote divides as normal but 2 daughter cells split to become separate cells
develop as new individuals

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16
Q

plant cuttings method

A

stem is cut at a node (2 leaf joints)
remove bark if present to avoid formation of a callus
add rooting powder depending on plant species (some take root less easily)
cut end of stem is buried into soil
new roots begin to grow into soil
this process is also possible from root, leaf and scion cuttings

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17
Q

grafting method

A

place portion of one plant (bud/stem/scion) into stock of another plant (root/branch/stem)
forms a graft union and both will continue to grow
union is wrapped and waxed to stabilise it

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18
Q

micropropagation method

A

tissue from apical buds taken as it is meristematic and still undergoing mitosis (explant)
surface cleaned using dilute bleach/alcohol to ensure aseptic conditions (no bacteria will then compete with plant tissue)
explant placed onto nutrient medium to encourage mitosis
forms a callus (mass of undifferentiated cells)
callus subdivided and placed in new nutrient medium to encourage differentiation of tissue
contains auxins, cytokinins, magnesium, nitrates, sucrose
callus cells growth into plantlets and can then be placed into sterile soil

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19
Q

auxins in micropropagation

A

stimulate formation of root hairs

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20
Q

cytokinins in micropropagation

A

stimulate shoot growth

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21
Q

magnesium in micropropagation

A

helps plant make chlorophyll

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22
Q

nitrates in micropropagation

A

needed in protein synthesis

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23
Q

sucrose in micropropagation

A

converted to glucose for respiration

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24
Q

advantages of clones instead of seeds

A 
maintains favourable characteristics of mother plant
quicker to produce, more produced
more likely to survive in lab conditions
disease-free
easily genetically manipulated
can be used for cloning infertile plants
easy to transport/store
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25
Q

disadvantages of clones instead of seeds

A 
geneticaly identical (all susceptible to some diseases) = loss in genetic diversity 
farmers have to buy plants from suppliers = high cost
labour intensive
patented property
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26
Q

embryo twinning method

A

zygote created by IVF
allowed to divide to form small ball of cells
cells separated and continue to divide
each of these cells placed into surrogate mother

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27
Q

use of embryo twinning

A

cloning “elite” farm animals

scientific research

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28
Q

cloning animals by nuclear transfer method

A

egg cell enucleated
adult somatic cell diploid nucleus from a different animal removed and injected into enucleated egg cell (or adult cell fused with enucleated egg cell)
cell given a small electric shock to stimulate mitosis
cells grows into an embryo in vitro
embryo can be split into several embryos to produce artificial identical twins
embryo(s) implanted into surrogate mother(s)

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29
Q

collecting eggs for cloning

A

treated with hormones with FSH
superovulation occurs
collect eggs from ovaries

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30
Q

why clone is not entirely genetically identical to nucleus donor

A

mitochondrial DNA found in cytoplasm

only DNA in nucleus of cell donor is taken

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31
Q

therapeutic cloning uses

A

new tissues and organs can be grown and replaced in patients where they are damaged e.g. skin grafts, beta cells producing insulin, spinal cord damage

32
Q

how surrogates could be prepared for implantation of embryo

A

hormone treatments

prepare uterus for implantation by causing lining to thicken so increased blood supply for the placenta

33
Q

advantages of animal cloning

A 
scientific research
elite farm animal production
produce desirable characteristics
reduce possibilities of disease
species preservation
34
Q

disadv of animal cloning

A

lack of genetic diversity

ethical reasons

35
Q

biotechnology definition

A

industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs or other products

36
Q

4 main areas of biotechnology

A

food
drugs
enzymes
other products

37
Q

major advantages of microorganisms in biotech

A

cheap + easy to grow
genetically modified easily (less ethical issues)
high temp. not required (saves fuel costs)
normal atmospheric pressure can be used (safer)
not dependent on climate (can be done anywhere)
products released (easy to harvest)
short life cycle (can reproduce very quickly)
purer products produced
waste products from other processes can be reused (occasionally requires pre-treating)

38
Q

how yoghurt is made

A

milk undergoes fermentation
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophillus convert lactose to lactic acid
acidity denatures milk protein, causing it to coagulate
bacteria partially digests milk (easy to digest)
other bacteria may be added as probiotics

39
Q

probiotics in yoghurt

A

bacteria that may benefit human health by improving digestion of lactose
aid in gastrointestinal function
stimulate immune system

40
Q

how cheese is made

A

pre-treated with Lactobacillus bacteria to produce lactic acid from lactose
mixed with rennet
enzyme rennin (chymosin) in rennet coagulates casein (milk protein) in presence of Ca2+ to form curd
curd separated from whey (liquid part) by cutting, stirring and heating
bacteria continues to grow as curd cut into moulds
flavour determined by later ripening and maturing processes

41
Q

where rennin is found

A

stomachs of young mammals

42
Q

how rennin coagulates casein

A

kappa-casein (keeps casein in solution) is broken down
casein is now insoluble
casein precipitated by Ca2+
binds molecule together to form curd

43
Q

method and microbes in baking bread

A

mix and knead ingredients together to form dough
prove dough in warm environment (allows yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to respire anaerobically)
produces CO2 bubbles, causes dough to rise
alcohol produced in proofing is evaporated off in cooking

44
Q

microbes in alcoholic beverage production

A

wine: yeast from grapes’ skin produces alcohol when anaerobically respire from natural sugars
beer: yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisae) ferments sugar from barley
hops give bitter taste

45
Q

penicillin production

A

Penicillium chrysogenum
made in batch culture (secondary metabolite so only produced when pop. has reached certain size)
penicillin made after 6-8 days in fermenter
precipitated out of mixture by potassium compounds, purified and put into tablets

46
Q

insulin production method

A

made in continuous culture (primary metabolite
bacteria genetically modified and grown in fermenter
continually harvested, purified and bottled as medicine

47
Q

bioremediation method

A

microbes clean polluted soil and water
use toxic pollutants to respire and convert them to less harmful substances
Pseudomonas

48
Q

SCP stands for

A

single-cell protein

mycoprotein

49
Q

most frequently used microorganism for SCP production

A

Fusarium venenatum

50
Q

batch fermentation features

A

fixed quantity of nutrients at start (no more added)
at end, process removed and tank emptied (process started again)
growth slower
easy to set up and maintain
contamination = loss of just one batch
less efficient
produces secondary metabolites after exponential phase during stationary phase (nutrients deplete)

51
Q

continuous fermentation features

A

nutrients and products added and removed from culture continuously
growth faster
quite difficult to set up and maintain
contamination = loss of more product
more efficient
produces primary metabolites during exponential phase (nutrients dont deplete and cultures stays in exponential phase)

52
Q

standard growth curve phases

A 
lag phase (bacteria start to grow)
exponential phase (population grows exponentially)
stationary phase (population growth stops as death rate = reproduction rate)
death phase (bacteria die faster than they multipy)
53
Q

metabolites definition

A

products of metabolic reactions

54
Q

primary metabolites features

A

produced during exponential growth phase
essential for normal cell growth/reproduction
matches growth in population

55
Q

secondary metabolites features

A

produced during stationary phase
not essential for normal cell growth/reproduction
doesnt match growth in population

56
Q

microorganism population growth formula

A 
N = No x 2^n
No = number of cells in population at start
N = number of cells in population 
n = number of generations that have occured
57
Q

importance of asepsis when manipulating microbes

A

reduces competition
prevents a reduced yield
prevents a spoilt product (toxic chemicals produced by unwanted microbes)

58
Q

asepsis vs sterile

A 
asepsis = no microorganisms at all
sterile = no harmful (pathogenic) microorganisms
59
Q

types of growth medium

A

broth (liquid)

agar (jelly like substance in a Petri dish)

60
Q

2 main nutrient requirements for growing microorganisms

A

carbon-containing compounds for respiration

nitrogen-containing compounds for protein synthesis

61
Q

how to avoid contamination when transferring microorganisms from broth to agar

A

wash hands
disinfect surfaces
heat the air so microorganisms don’t settle
flame the opening to any microorganism when containing vessel before and after
flame equipment
limit air exposure e.g. when Petri dish lid is removed

62
Q

sterilisation for growing microorganisms method

A

growth medium sterilised in autoclave heated to 121°C for 15 minutes and poured into sterile Petri dish
sterilise equipment through heating

63
Q

inoculation methods

A

streaking: wire of inoculating loop used to drop liquid medium onto agar, loop is used to drag medium across surface of agar
spreading: sterile glass spreader (or cotton bud moistened with distilled water) can move liquid medium across the whole surface of agar
seeding: sterile pipette used to transfer a drop of liquid medium to agar surface or before it is poured for setting

64
Q

incubation details

A 
stored upside down
warm environment 
examined after 24-36 hours
do not open
each colony is from a single bacteria
sterilised after use and before disposal
65
Q

inoculation steps

A

loop flamed
cap removed from sterile broth
unheated loop inserted into tube of sterile broth
loop removed from broth and tube mouth is flamed
tube enclosure returned to tube

66
Q

immobilised enzyme definition

A

enzymes attached to an insoluble material in order to keep them separate from the reaction mixture

67
Q

immobilised enzyme advs. in general

A

more cost-effective as enzyme remains separate from products and can be reused

68
Q

how to immobilised enzymes method

A

entrapment: trapped in alginate beads or cellulose mesh
adsorption: stuck onto collagen/clay/resin/porous glass (covalent bonding to clay)
membrane separation: partially permeable membrane

69
Q

advs of immobilised enzymes in large scale production

A

product is uncontaminated by enzyme therefore no downstream processing needed (cheaper)
not lost during process and therefore reuseable (cheaper)
matrix protects the enzyme so enzyme works at higher temp. so reactions can be faster as done at higher temp.
matrix protects enzyme so enzyme works in changed pHs
suitable for continuous culture (long shelf-life)

70
Q

disadv of immobilised enzymes in large scale

A

immobilisation difficult/expensive

can be less efficient as substrate has to get through beads so don’t form ESCs as readily

71
Q

aminoacylase function

A

produces pure samples on L-amino acids by removing acyl group from the nitrogen of an N-acyl-amino acid

72
Q

glucoamylase function

A

during hydrolysis of starch, short polymers of glucose are made (dextrins) which can then be further hydrolysed into glucose

73
Q

glucose isomerase function

A

converts glucose to fructose to make high fructose corn syrup

74
Q

nitrile hydratase definition

A

converts nitriles to amides (some used to make plastics)

75
Q

lactase function

A

converts lactose to glucose and galactose by hydrolysis to make lactose-free milk

76
Q

penicillin acylase/amidase function

A

creates semi-synthetic penicillin

A-Level Biology (24 decks)

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