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AS PE > 5.1 Individual Differences > Flashcards

5.1 Individual Differences Flashcards

1
Q

What is the definition of personality?

A

the patterns of thoughts and feelings and the way in which we interact with our environment and other people that makes us a unique person

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2
Q

What is the definition of anxiety?

A

A negative emotional state that is closely associated with arousal. It is experiencing apprehension and being aware of high arousal linked to our fears and worries.

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3
Q

What is the definition of state anxiety?

A

Anxiety that is felt in a particular situation.

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4
Q

What are the 2 types of state anxiety?

A

somatic and cognitive

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5
Q

What is somatic anxiety?

A

the body’s response (e.g. tension, increase in pulse rate)

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6
Q

What is cognitive anxiety?

A

psychological worry over the situation

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7
Q

What are the 2 types of personality?

A

type A and type B

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8
Q

What is a type A personality characterised by?

A

impatience, intolerance and high levels of stress

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9
Q

What is a type B personality?

A

they have a relaxed, tolerant approach with lower personal stress

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10
Q

What is the definition of a stable personality trait?

A

A personality characteristic of someone who does not swing from one emotion to another, but is usually constant in their emotional behaviour

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11
Q

What is the definition of an unstable or neurotic personality trait?

A

A personality characteristic of someone who is highly anxious and has unpredictable emotions

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12
Q

What is an example of a stable personality trait?

A

Some people are calm in most situations but for others they have high levels of anxiety in most situations

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13
Q

What is the definition of extroversion?

A

A personality characteristic or trait of a person who seeks social situations and likes excitement but lacks concentration

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14
Q

What is the definition of introversion?

A

A personality characteristic or trait of a person who does not seek social situations and likes peace and quiet, but is good at concentrating.

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15
Q

What is the definition of arousal?

A

the ‘energised state’ or the ‘readiness for action’ that motivates us to behave in a particular way

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16
Q

What does RAS stand for?

A

Reticular Activating System

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17
Q

How can RAS be used to show extroversion?

A

Extroverts are seen as having a RAS that inhibits or reduces the effects of external sensory stimuli, which leads to areas of the brain experiencing low levels of arousal. Therefore, extroverts seek more external simulation to achieve higher levels of internal arousal and will be more outgoing to achieve this.

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18
Q

How can RAS be used to show introversion?

A

Introverts have high levels of arousal naturally occurring within their brains, so tend to avoid external stimulation. Therefore, introverts are likely to be shy or avoid social situations.

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19
Q

What is the social learning approach to personality?

A

Some psychologists think that a person’s personality with the situation and that the environment (including the behaviour of others) influences behaviour. This theory shows that our personalities are shapes by those around us and that we are more likely to adopt the personality of role models that we come into contact with.

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20
Q

What is the interactionist approach to personality?

A

This theory agrees that we do have certain traits which appear consistently, but on many other occasions our traits interact with environmental factors in a given situation and this in turn affects our personality and behaviour. This explains how personalities seemingly changes.

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21
Q

What is an example of the interactionist approach in terms of personality?

A

A sports person being shy and retiring off court in tennis and then during a game being loud and brash.

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22
Q

What is the equation linked to the interactionist approach?

A

B = f(PE)
B is the behaviour, f is the function, P is the personality trait and E is the environment.

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23
Q

What is the definition of self-actualisation?

A

the individual’s desire to explore and understand the world so that they can grow personally and reach their potential.

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24
Q

What is the definition of attitude?

A

a predisposition to act in a particular way towards something or someone in a person’s environment.

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25
Q

What is the definition of prejudice?

A

a preconceived opinion based on a faulty and inflexible generalisation

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26
Q

What are the 3 components of the triadic model of an attitude?

A

1 cognitive element (beliefs)
2 affective element (emotions)
3 behavioural element

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27
Q

How is the cognitive element of the triadic structure of an attitude formed?

A

Our beliefs are formed through our past experiences and by what we have learned from others. Many of our beliefs are learnt from our parents or peers. People who are significant to us are more likely to influence our beliefs.

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28
Q

How is the affective element of the triadic structure of an attitude formed?

A

Our emotional reactions to an attitude object, whether we like or dislike it, also depend on past experiences. If we have previously experiences satisfaction and enjoyment, then if we find ourselves in a similar situation we are more likely to look forward to liking the experience.

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29
Q

How is the behavioural element of the triadic structure of an attitude formed?

A

Our behaviour is not always consistent with our attitude - for instance, we may believe that exercise is good for us and may enjoy participating but we may not exercise very much. We are, however, more likely to behave in a way that reveals out attitude.

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30
Q

What is a practical example of where the triadic model of an attitude is applied?

A

Your attitude to fitness training could be made up of the belief that fitness training will keep you fit and will enhance your body image - this is the cognitive element of your attitude. You enjoy fitness training and you have fun being with others who are training with you - this is the affective element of your attitude. You go fitness training twice a week - this is the behavioural element of your attitude.

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31
Q

What does the effectiveness of persuasion depend on?

A

the person doing the persuading
the quality of the message
the characteristics of who is being persuaded

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32
Q

How will the person doing the persuading affect how successful it is?

A

Teachers or coaches have been given authority - a position, therefore they are more likely to be of high status. They may be fit themselves and become role models and they may have good communication and leadership skills.

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33
Q

How will the quality of the message affect how successful persuasion is ?

A

For persuasion to be successful, the message must make sense and be believable. The information given must be accurate, unambiguous an clear.

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34
Q

How will the characteristics of who is being persuades affect how successful it is?

A

The people you are trying to persuade may be intelligent enough to understand the message, but may not accept it. They may put up counter arguments.

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35
Q

What is Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance?

A

This theory states that all of the 3 elements involved in an attitude, according to the triadic model, should be consistent if the attitude is to remain stable and the individual is to be content. If a change of attitude is desired, the individual must experience two or more opposing beliefs. This causes the individual to feel uncomfortable because of the disharmony of dissonance that has been created in the mind. To be comfortable again, one of these beliefs needs to be dominant, which is where teachers and coaches can influence the attitude of the individual.

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36
Q

What is the definition of ‘social norms’?

A

Behaviours that are deemed ‘normal’ within a culture and are created through a process call socialisation.

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37
Q

What is the definition of culture?

A

Members of a community learning certain behaviours that are shared among those within the community of people or our society.

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38
Q

In PE, recreation and sport, why do some people possess positive attitudes?

A

They believe in the value of exercise.
They enjoy the activities and have fun or enjoy competition.
They are good at the activity.
They experience excitement because of the physical challenge.
They enjoy the physical sensations and personal expression.
They experience relaxation and see it as an escape from stress (catharsis).
They see participation as a social norm.

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39
Q

Why do some people have negative attitudes towards physical activity?

A

They believe that it is harmful or that they are better off doing other activities.
They dislike the experiences involved.
They lack the physical or perceptual skills necessary for success.
They are frightened of the activity.
They experiences stress and anxiety when they participate.
They see the social norm as being non-participation.

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40
Q

What is the definition of stereotype?

A

A belief held by a collection of people about traits shared by a certain category of person.

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41
Q

What is the definition of motivation?

A

The internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour.

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42
Q

What is the definition of drive?

A

Directed, motivated or ‘energised’ behaviour that an individual has towards achieving a certain goal.

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43
Q

What are the 3 main points about motivation?

A

1 It involves our inner drives towards achieving a goal.
2 It depends on external pressures and rewards that we perceive in our environment.
3 It concerns the intensity and the direction of our behaviour.

44
Q

What is intrinsic motivation?

A

the internal drives to participate or to perform well

45
Q

What is a practical example of intrinsic motivation?

A

A child who learns to swim and who enjoys swimming can be motivated to swim further by receiving swimming badges. After a time, when the child has achieved the full range of badges, he could lose interest in swimming because he may feel that there are no more rewards to be had. The intrinsic motives of the swimmer have mainly been lost because there is no longer sufficient reason to continue.

46
Q

What are some factors of external motivation?

A

medals, badges and rewards

47
Q

What is a practical example of external motivation?

A

Instructors who wish to optimise the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation should involve performers in goal setting and decision-making. An athlete who shares in planning a training programme will view success with a sense of personal achievement.

48
Q

What is arousal?

A

It refers to the intensity of our behaviour or the amount of drive we experience to achieve something. In sport, it can be seen as the drive or energised state that motivates us to perform.

49
Q

What are some physiological effects of arousal?

A

increase in heart rate, breathing and production of sweat

50
Q

What are the 3 theories that link arousal and performance?

A

1 drive theory
2 inverted U theory
3 catastrophe theory

51
Q

What is the definition of drive reduction?

A

An individual may be motivated to complete a task, which can be seen as ‘drive’. When that drive is perceived as being fulfilled, then the drive is reduced.

52
Q

What is the drive theory of arousal?

A

It sees the relationship between arousal and performance as linear - performance increases in proportion to arousal.

53
Q

What is the inverted U theory of arousal?

A

As arousal level increases so does the level of performance - but only to an optimum point, which occurs usually at moderate arousal level. Once past a moderate arousal level, performance decreases. Participants in sport can become anxious if they are over-aroused and their performance usually suffers.

54
Q

What is a practical example of the inverted U theory of arousal?

A

A novice is best taught basic skills in a low arousal environment. It is better if no-one is watching and if competition is not applied in the early stages if learning as if they become over-aroused due to the competition, their performance is deteriorate and they will not be able to develop the learning of the skill.

55
Q

How does the type of activity affect the optimum level of arousal in the inverted U theory of arousal?

A

If the activity to be performed involved many fine-controlled movements, then the arousal level of the performer needs to be fairly low for optimum performance. For example, pistol shooters and archers go to great lengths to control their emotional arousal levels. If the activity is much more gross, such as weightlifting, arousal levels need to be fairly high to expend so much dynamic strength.

56
Q

How does the skill level of the performer affect the optimum level of arousal in the inverted U theory of arousal?

A

If the performer is highly skilled, many movements are controlled by motor programmes. Many of their actions need little conscious attention and therefore they can cope with higher levels of arousal. A performer who is a beginner and has low skill levels will need to attend to many details related to the movement and consequently will need to consciously process much more information. If the arousal level is even moderate, a novice may lose concentration or become anxious, and so a low level of arousal is likely to produce optimum performance.

57
Q

How does personality of the performer affect the optimum level of arousal in the inverted U theory of arousal?

A

Personality types who enjoy high levels of excitement and are generally more extrovert can cope in high arousal situations. People who are more introverted are generally more likely to perform well under low arousal conditions. This is backed up by the link between the RAS and personality.

58
Q

What is the catastrophe theory of arousal?

A

As arousal increases performance also increases steadily until there is a sudden and dramatic drop in performance after a certain point of arousal.

59
Q

What are the 2 types of anxiety that the catastrophe theory of arousal takes into account?

A

somatic and cognitive anxiety

60
Q

What is the definition of somatic anxiety?

A

Anxiety experiences physiologically or of the body - e.g. sweating

61
Q

What is the definition of cognitive anxiety?

A

Anxiety experienced by the mind - e.g. worry about failing

62
Q

According to the catastrophe theory of arousal, what will happen if there is an increase in cognitive and somatic anxiety is high?

A

performance will decline

63
Q

According to the catastrophe theory of arousal, what will happen if there are high levels of cognitive anxiety and there is a continuous increase in somatic anxiety or physiological arousal?

A

performance can suddenly deteriorate - a ‘catastrophic’ response

64
Q

According to the catastrophe theory of arousal, what will happen after a catastrophic response?

A

Arousal decreases, then performance will once again improve but not back to its originally optimum level.

65
Q

What is ‘peak flow experience’?

A

A phrase that has been used about sportsmen and women who achieve optimum performance levels and associate this with a particular emotional response.

66
Q

How can peak flow experience be explained?

A

Can be explained by all the arousal theories. All the theories related to arousal show that performance is related to the amount of inner drive and self-motivation. There are mental strategies which can help performers achieve this experience, to motivates them to want to repeat it and drive them to achieve their very best.

67
Q

Where is the RAS located?

A

centre core of the brainstem

68
Q

What is anxiety?

A

The negative aspect of experiencing stress and can be caused in sport by worry and apprehension experienced, perhaps, due to fear of failing in a competitive situation.

69
Q

How does anxiety describe our feelings of being threatened?

A

Threat of physical harm
Threat of our self-esteem
Threat of letting other people down
Fear of being punished

70
Q

What is the definition of trait anxiety?

A

A trait that is enduring in an individual. A performer with high trait anxiety has the predisposition or the potential to react to situations with apprehension.

71
Q

What is competitive anxiety?

A

The worry or apprehension experienced during or about competition experiences

72
Q

What is the definition of competitive trait anxiety?

A

A tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening and to respond to these situations with feelings of apprehension or tension

73
Q

What are the 4 major factors related to competitive anxiety?

A

1 individual differences
2 different types of anxiety
3 general or specific anxiety
4 the competition process

74
Q

How does individual differences affect competitive anxiety?

A

People react differently to different situations. For example, important games will generate more anxiety than ‘friendly’ games.

75
Q

How does different types of anxiety affect competitive anxiety?

A

Different types of anxiety can be treated in different ways. Spielberger identifies trait anxiety and state anxiety. Performers who have high trait anxiety are more likely to experience high state anxiety in stressful situations but other situational factors can also cause high state anxiety.

76
Q

How can general or specific anxiety affect competitive anxiety?

A

High trait anxiety performers are likely to become anxious in highly stressful situations but are not equally anxious in all stressful situations: their anxiety levels may vary. Some performers may be extremely anxious when in a training situations but in a match, with a large crowd watching, they are not as anxious.

77
Q

How can the competition process affect competitive anxiety?

A

This involves the interaction between personality factors, competitive trait anxiety and the situation. This interaction will affect behaviour and may cause state anxiety.

78
Q

What does SCAT stand for?

A

Sport Competition Anxiety Test

79
Q

What does a SCAT test assess?

A

It involves giving competitors a self-report questionnaire to assess the anxiety they felt during competitions.

80
Q

What kind of anxiety does a SCAT test measure?

A

competitive trait anxiety

81
Q

Through the use of SCAT tests, what has been found out about cognitive and somatic anxiety in the lead up to competitions?

A

Cognitive state anxiety increases as the competition approaches, although it does not increase immediately before the competition. It has been said that somatic state anxiety tends to be low leading up to the competition but increases a few hours before.

82
Q

What is the zone of optimal functioning?

A

Often cited by modern sports psychologists as an important state of well-being.

83
Q

What are the 7 things top performers can do to achieve the ‘in zone’?

A

be relaxed
be confident
be completely focused
activity is effortless
movement are automatic
fun
in control

84
Q

What is the importance of cue utilisation?

A

If cues in the environment are not used effectively, then the sports person fails to gather relevant information from around the field of play. There is also the danger that the person could be distracted too easily by irrelevant cues, such as a person in the crowd shouting at them.

85
Q

What is the definition of aggression?

A

Intent to harm outside the rules of the sport

86
Q

What is the definition of assertion?

A

Forceful behaviour within the laws of the event

87
Q

What is the instinct theory of aggression?

A

This theory views aggression as being natural response and is important in the well-being and evolutionary development of the species.

88
Q

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

A

It states that frustration will always lead to aggression because any blocking of goals that an individual is trying to reach increases that individual’s drive, which in turn increases aggression. Aggression, once initiated, will then reduce the frustration, leading to catharsis.

89
Q

What is the definition of catharsis?

A

The release of frustration which leads to a feeling of well-being

90
Q

What is the aggressive cue hypothesis?

A

It states that when an individual is frustrated there is an increase in their arousal level, which creates a predisposition or readiness for aggression. If aggression is going to occur then certain stimuli must be present that act as cues for the athlete, who would then associate the cues with having to be aggressive.

91
Q

What is the social learning theory of aggression?

A

Bandura advocated that aggression is a learned response rather than instinctive. It states that we learn by observing and copying the behaviour of others or by direct reinforcement of our own behaviour.

92
Q

What is the definition of social facilitation?

A

The positive influence of others, who may be watching or competing, on sports performance

93
Q

What is the definition of social inhibition?

A

The negative influence of others, who may be watching or competing, which leads to a decrease on sports performance

94
Q

What 4 factors affect performance to then cause social facilitation or inhibition?

A

1 The presence of an audience or coactors increases the arousal level of a performer.
2 This increase in arousal makes it more likely that the performer’s dominant response will occur.
3 If the skill to be performed is simple or if the performer is an expert, the dominant response is likely to be the correct one and the performance will improve.
4 If the skill is complex or if the performer is a novice, the dominant response is likely to be incorrect and performance may decline.

95
Q

What is evaluation apprehension?

A

The sports psychologist Cottrell (1968) stated that it was not the presence of the audience of the coactors alone that raised arousal levels and that, at times, the presence of others had a calming effect rather than raising anxiety. Cottrell stated that arousal level increased only when the others present were evaluating, or were perceived by the performer to be evaluating or judging, the performance.

96
Q

How does home or away have an effect of social facilitation on performance?

A

Teams win more often at ‘home’ than they do ‘away’. This may have something to do with the nature of the audience - whether they are hostile, whether the team has its own supporters in any numbers and whether the team feels alienated by the environment. Some research suggests that playing at home can be a disadvantage as the performer may suffer increases pressure in front of people that he or she knows, or may feel that he or she is being evaluated more as an individual.

97
Q

How does personality have an effect of social facilitation?

A

High anxiety (type A) individuals perform less well in the presence of others than individuals with a low anxiety trait (type B).
Extroverts tend to seek situations with high arousal levels and they therefore perform better with an audience. Introverts shy away from social situations because they have high levels of internal arousal.

98
Q

How does previous experience in front of a crowd have an effect of social facilitation?

A

Previous experiences in front of an audience effect future responses. If an individual has failed before in front of an audience, he or she may expect to fail again. Conversely, having been through the experience before may have removed the threat of an audience and future performances may be better.

99
Q

How does being an elite or highly skills performer affect social facilitation?

A

The elite or highly skilled performers are more likely to do well in front of an audience and will experience social facilitation rather than inhibition. This is because of their dominant responses are more likely to be correct. Well-learned performers have motor programmes stored in their long-term memories that can be applied with little conscious control. Therefore, distractions are less likely to interfere with these almost automated responses.

100
Q

How will the crowd’s knowledge of the sport have an effect of social facilitation?

A

The crowd’s knowledge of the sport may increase evaluation apprehension, or the performer may feel supported because of the crowd’s will-informed empathy.

101
Q

How will the people who you are performing in front of have an effect of social facilitation?

A

Performing in front of people you know can increase anxiety levels and hinder performance. If the performer is an expert, the presence of peers can increase the sense of pride, thus enhancing the performance.

102
Q

If the skill is simple or gross, how will this affect social facilitation?

A

If skills to be performers are simple or gross, then high arousal caused by the audience can facilitate or help performance. This is because these types of skills do not require high levels of perceptual processing and are often dynamic in nature, requiring high levels of arousal or drive.

103
Q

If the skill is complex or fine, how will this affect social facilitation?

A

If skills are more complex or fine, then lower levels of arousal are more desirable to optimise performance. Therefore, the presence of others as an audience can inhibit the performance of these skills.

104
Q

How does the nature of the audience have an affect of social facilitation?

A

The nature of the audience can affect the arousal level of the performer. For example, if the crows is noisy and very competitive, the performer may feel more anxious and possibly more aggressive.

105
Q

How will the physical proximity of the audience have an affect on social facilitation?

A

The physical proximity of the audience can also affect arousal level and in turn affect performance. If the crowd is very close, the performer may feel threatened (conversely they may feel reassured by the closeness of the crowd).

106
Q

In the early stages of learning a skill, what type of atmosphere is it best to learn in and why?

A

Teachers and coaches should be aware that an audience can impair performance in the early stages of skill learning and so it is best to teach skills in a non-evaluative atmosphere. The athletes must be aware of the negative effects of distractions and must be prepared to deal with the potentially negative reactions of co-actors, as well as hostile spectators.

107
Q

How do some athletes cope with the negative effects of an audience?

A

They try to shut out the audience so that they can mentally prepare for the task in hand, some using imagery techniques, some using relaxation techniques. A number of coaches prepare their athletes to cope with an audience by getting them used to people watching during training.

AS PE (16 decks)

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