4.5 Stages of Learning, guidance and feedback

Question 1

What are the 3 stages of learning ?

Answer 1

Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage

Question 2

What are the 4 different types of guidance ?

Answer 2

Verbal
Visual
Manual
Mechanical

Question 3

What are the 6 types of feedback?

Answer 3

Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Positive
Negative
Knowledge of performance
Knowledge of results

Question 4

What is the cognitive stage of learning ?

Answer 4

Earliest stage when the performer understands what needs to be done
Lots of trail and error
Successful movements can be reinforced by the performer experiencing success
Unsuccessful movement should not be dismissed as all experiences are worthwhile
Use of demonstrations by teacher to highlight relevant cues

Question 5

What is a practical example of a performer being in the cognitive stage ?

Answer 5

If a novice badminton player is in the cognitive stage of learning and needs to understand the serve, the teacher could demonstrate the correct technique and highlight important points ( this is called cueing) so that the player builds up a mental picture of what needs to be done. This is visualisation of the movement is more effective if the teaching is simple, clear and concise.

Question 6

What is the associative stage of learning?

Answer 6

The performer practices and compared or associates the movements produced with the mental image.
Feedback occurs and the learner gradually become more aware of increasingly subtle and complex cues
Vast improvement in performance usually occurs.
Motor programmes are said to be formed in this stage.

Question 7

What is a practical example of a performer being in the associative stage ?

Answer 7

The novice badminton player who is now aware of what needs to be done for the serve has tried various strategies. Her service is now more consistent and more serves fall into the service box. The performer is concentrating on getting the service lower and into different areas of the service box and the teacher is giving feedback. The performer is starting to detect and correct errors, even without her teacher’s help.

Question 8

What is the autonomous stage of learning ?

Answer 8

Final stage of learning
Movements are becoming almost automatic with very little conscious thought
Any distractions are largely informed and the performer is able to concentrate on more peripheral strategies and tactics
Motor programmes are completely formed in long-term memory and reaction time is short.
They must continuously refer back to the associative stage where practice ensures that motor programmes are reinforced.

Question 9

What is a practical example of a performer being in the autonomous stage ?

Answer 9

The performer of the badminton serve is now confident and able to consistently perform an accurate serve with the minimum amount of thought. The performer can use more sophisticated strategies, such as disguising the nature of her serve, putting her opponent at a disadvantage. She can now also take into consideration more peripheral cues, such as her opponent’s position on court and, in doubles, the position of the other opposing player.

Question 10

What is verbal guidance ?

Answer 10

Used to describe the action and explain how to perform the activity.

Question 11

Why is verbal guidance of limited value to beginners ?

Answer 11

Motor skills are very difficult to describe without a demonstration of some kind.

Question 12

When is verbal guidance most effective ?

Answer 12

Verbal guidance for the move advanced performer is effective when more perceptual information, such as tactics or positional play, needs to be conveyed.
For associative and autonomous learners, verbal guidance can be used to improve skill learning and development.

Question 13

When using verbal guidance, what do coaches need to be aware of ?

Answer 13

Do NOT speak for too long - sports performers can have short attention spans.
Some movements simply cannot be explained
Direct (or didactic) verbal guidance is better in the early stages to ensure that the learner has a clear idea of what needs to be done.
Questioning techniques can encourage personal develop and develop confidence if handled in the right way.

Question 14

What are the advantages of verbal guidance ?

Answer 14

It can be in the form of feedback, which can be used to reinforce good movements and to identify errors that might then be corrected.
It can hold the attention of the performer if used appropriately and can be used to motivate the performer to learn and develop the movement skills.

Question 15

What are the disadvantages of verbal guidance ?

Answer 15

It can lead to ‘information overload’ - with the performer getting either distracted or confused by the guidance.
The guidance given could be inaccurate and the performer may not develop the skills effectively.

Question 16

What is visual guidance ?

Answer 16

During the cognitive stage of learning, visual guidance helps the learner create a mental image of the skill and its performance.

Question 17

What are some types of visual guidance ?

Answer 17

Demonstrations
Videos
Charts

Question 18

When using visual guidance, why must the demonstration be as accurate as possible?

Answer 18

So that there is no possibility of the learner building up an incorrect picture or to cause negative transfer.

Question 19

What are the points that should be considered before using visual guidance ?

Answer 19

Demonstrations must be accurate and should hold the performers attention.
Demonstrations must be related but should not be too time-consuming.
Videos can be useful, especially if they have a slow-motion facility, but the student must be able to copy the model presented.
For a learner to maximum benefit, their position during training should be considered.
During the cognitive phase of skill learning, visual guidance is important for the learner to develop a mental image of what needs to be done.

Question 20

What are the advantages of visual guidance ?

Answer 20

The performer can find it easy to create a mental picture of what is required in a skill by watching a demonstration or other visual representation.
It can enable the skill to be seen in different stages to make it easier to learn or develop.
It encourages observational learning by drawing attention to important cues.

Question 21

What are the disadvantages of visual guidance ?

Answer 21

The demonstrations could be incorrect and therefore the performer could learn bad habits, which could hinder skill development.
The coach may not be able to show an accurate demonstration.
The visual representation may be unclear or the skill production too quick for the performer to follow it effectively.

Question 22

What are the two factors that manual and mechanical guidance involves ?

Answer 22

1. Physical support for the performer by another person or mechanical device. This is commonly known as physical restriction
2. The response of the performer being directed physically by another person. This is commonly known as forced response.

Question 23

When using manual and mechanical guidance, what should teachers and coaches ensure ?

Answer 23

The learner is not given a too unrealistic feeling of the action. The intrinsic feedback received could be incorrect and may instil bad habits or result in negative transfer.
The learner participates as fully as possible to avoid negative effects on the learners motivation.

Question 24

What are the points that should be considered before using manual and mechanical guidance ?

Answer 24

Manual/mechanical guidance can reduce fear in dangerous situations.
This method of guidance can give some idea of kinaesthetic awareness of the motion
It could give an unrealistic feeling of the kinaesthetic as of the motion.
The intrinsic feedback received could be incorrect and may instil bad habits or negative transfer.
There is a reduction in the learner’s participation, which could negatively affect motivation.

Question 25

What is a practical example of manual guidance ?

Answer 25

Holding the arms of a golfer and forcing their arms through the movement of a drive.
This is forced response.

Question 26

What is a practical example of mechanical guidance ?

Answer 26

The use of a twisting belt in trampolining.
This is physical restriction.

Question 27

What are the advantages of manual/mechanical guidance ?

Answer 27

It can give the performer a great sense of safety and help with their confidence.
It can be used to isolate an important aspect of the skill to practise as a separate sub-routine.

Question 28

What are the disadvantages of manual/mechanical guidance ?

Answer 28

It can be over-restrictive to the performer who feels a lack of control over the movement.
It can lead a false sense of kinaesthesis. The performer is not getting the true sense of the skill action if the body is restricted or there is a mechanical aid.

Question 29

What is internal/intrinsic feedback?

Answer 29

A type of continuous feedback that comes from the proprioceptors - nerve receptors found in muscles, ligaments and joints that pick up movement information.

Question 30

What are the advantages of intrinsic feedback?

Answer 30

Feedback occurs as the movement is performed so is readily available and movements can be corrected or altered immediately.
The performer does not have to rely on others.
If the performer is in the autonomous stage of learning, the feedback is likely to be accurate and due to the experience of the performer, it can be interpreted correctly and lead to improved performance.

Question 31

What are the disadvantages of intrinsic feedback?

Answer 31

The feedback may not lead to accurate interpretation if the performer is in the cognitive stage or is unable to interpret the information provided by the body.
Some performer are able to feel and interpret movements more effectively than others.
Some performers may interpret intrinsic feedback incorrectly and therefore performance may deteriorate.

Question 32

What is external/extrinsic feedback?

Answer 32

Feedback that comes from external sources - for example from a teacher or from a coach

Question 33

What are the advantages of extrinsic feedback?

Answer 33

The coach can give coaching points that may lead to improvements, as long as the information is accurate and relevant.

Question 34

What are the disadvantages of external feedback?

Answer 34

Inaccurate feedback can affect performance negatively and result in negative transfer.
If the source of feedback is unreliable then the performer’s motivation can drop.
It does not encourage as much kinaesthetic awareness than intrinsic feedback.

Question 35

What is positive feedback?

Answer 35

It involved information that is often extrinsic and rewards the performer often via praise or positive comments about the performance.
It reinforces skill learning and give information about a successful outcome.

Question 36

What are the advantages of positive feedback?

Answer 36

Can lead to positive reinforcement and therefore enable the correct S-R bond to be formed.
Can be extremely motivating, especially for cognitive stage learners.
Can help to build self-esteem and confidence in the performer.

Question 37

What are the disadvantages of positive feedback?

Answer 37

If undeserved, then the performer may be building inappropriate S-R bonds and therefore performance may deteriorate.
Some performers do not respond well to too much pride and may ignore the feedback and this may hinder performance and learning.

Question 38

What is negative feedback ?

Answer 38

Information about an unsuccessful outcome, which can be used to build more successful strategies.
Can be in the form of critical and may concentrate on poor aspects of performance and results.

Question 39

What are the advantages of negative feedback?

Answer 39

Some performers are motivated well by negative feedback and it may result in a more determined performer.
The performer will be clear about which aspects of the performance requires improvement.
It is more suited to autonomous learners, who require further refinement of their skills.

Question 40

What are the disadvantages of negative feedback?

Answer 40

Can be demotivating to the performer, especially if they are in the cognitive stage or take criticism badly.
May be detrimental to the learning process if the feedback is unfounded or inaccurate.

Question 41

What is knowledge of results?

Answer 41

A type of terminal feedback that gives the performer information about the end result of the response.

Question 42

What is knowledge of performance?

Answer 42

Information about how well the movement is being executed, rather than the end result.

Question 43

What are the advantages of knowledge of results ?

Answer 43

The performer knows how they have done compared to last performances.

Question 44

What are the disadvantages of knowledge of results ?

Answer 44

May not be an accurate representation of the their performance as a whole.
They may become reliant on good results so may be demotivating to get bad results.

Question 45

What are the advantages of knowledge of performance?

Answer 45

Good for learners in the associative and autonomous stage as they know if it is a good performance or not.

Question 46

What are the disadvantages of knowledge of performance?

Answer 46

Not ideal for cognitive learners as they do not know the kinaesthetics of the movement yet.

Question 47

When giving feedback, what 4 factors should be considered and involved?

Answer 47

A limited amount of information.
Immediacy.
Related to in the individual.
Facilitating intrinsic feedback/kinaesthesis.

Question 48

Why should you only give a limited amount of information when giving feedback?

Answer 48

There is a danger if overloading the performer with information, especially the novice.
There should also be a focus on very specific, easily understood points.

Question 49

Why should you give feedback immediately after a performance?

Answer 49

The feedback should be given as soon as possible after the performance so that the performer can relate the information to very recent personal experiences that have recently been retained in the memory store.

Question 50

Why should feedback be directly exactly at specific individuals?

Answer 50

At times team feedback is important because of the need to collectively review team tactics and co-ordinate play but the most effective feedback is directed specifically at individuals. They can then relate to the feedback more readily and are accountable in future actions.

Question 51

When giving feedback, why is the facilitation of kinaesthetics essential?

Answer 51

This encourages performers to recognise for themselves the quality of their movements , therefore being able to correct errors almost immediately.