4.4 Learning Theories

Question 1

What is the definition of associationist?

Answer 1

A group of theories related to stimulus and response. These theories are often referred to as S-R theories. An individual is conditioned by stimuli, which are connected or bonded to appropriate responses.

Question 2

What is the definition of reinforcement?

Answer 2

The process that increases the probability of a behaviour occurring. Reinforcement strengthens to the S-R bond.
Reinforcement can be positive or negative.

Question 3

What is the definition of positive reinforcement?

Answer 3

The stimulus is given when then desired response occurs.

Question 4

What is the definition of negative reinforcement?

Answer 4

The stimulus is withdrawn when the desired response occurs.

Question 5

What is the definition of punishment?

Answer 5

Giving a stimulus to prevent a response occurring.
Not to be confused with negative reinforcement.

Question 6

What is operant conditioning an example of?

Answer 6

An associationist or connectionist view of learning.

Question 7

What did Skinner do in 1964 to prove operant conditioning?

Answer 7

Work undertaken by Skinner in 1964 revealed that conditioning was more effective through manipulation of behaviour towards a stimulus rather than through manipulation of the stimulus.
Skinner used a box with a rate inside it. If the rat hit a lever inside the box, a food pellet would be released. Through trial and error, the rat eventually learned that hitting the lever would produce food. This became known as operant conditioning, or trial-and-error learning. Hitting the lever gave food and therefore a reward, which reinforces the hitting action.

Question 8

What year did Skinner prove the basics of operant conditioning ?

Answer 8

1964

Question 9

What is operant conditioning ?

Answer 9

It is concerned with actions being ‘shaped’ and then reinforced.

Question 10

What needs to be present for operant conditioning to work?

Answer 10

Reinforcement.

Question 11

What is complete reinforcement?

Answer 11

Learning is faster if a reward is given on every occasion.

Question 12

What is partial reinforcement ?

Answer 12

Research shows that if a reward is given after a number of correct responses, learning takes longer but lasts longer.

Question 13

What are Thorndike’s 3 laws?

Answer 13

1. Law of exercise
2. Law of effect
3. Law of readiness

Question 14

What is the law of exercise?

Answer 14

Repeating or rehearsing the S-R connection is more likely to strengthen them. If the desired response occurs, reinforcement is necessary.

Question 15

What is a practical example of applying the law of exercise?

Answer 15

If a gymnast practises a floor routine repeatedly, the stimulus-response bonds are repeated or ‘exercised’. The more time a skill is practised, the more likely a response will be bonded to a particular stimulus.

Question 16

What is the law of effect?

Answer 16

If the response is followed by a ‘satisfier’, then the S-R bond is strengthened.
If the response is followed by an ‘annoyer’, then the S-R bond is weakened.
This means that pleasant outcomes are likely to motivate the performer to repeat the action.

Question 17

What is a practical example of applying the law of effect?

Answer 17

If a beginner rugby player is attempting a spin pass and is successful, then the effect is deemed to be successful and it is more likely that the player will perform the skill successfully again. If the player is unsuccessful and the effect is failure, then the effect is one that subsequently avoided.

Question 18

What is the law of readiness?

Answer 18

The performer must be physically and mentally able to complete the task effectively.

Question 19

What is a practical example of applying the law of readiness?

Answer 19

A hockey player who has been drilled to perform a particular penalty flick may become predictable and renovated by inhibition.
Practice should be stopped for a while - perhaps new strategies should be discussed and practised later.
New targets should be set and the practice resumed.

Question 20

What is Hull’s drive theory?

Answer 20

He stated that if the S-R bind is to be strong, a performer must be motivated to do well. He warned against too much repetition of practice because he thought that it could lead to ‘inhibition’, which could demotivate the performer and weaken the S-R bind.
The inhibition can be overcome after a rest interval or when new and more motivating goals are determined.

Question 21

What is the definition is intervening variables?

Answer 21

Mental processes occurring between the stimulus being recovered and the response.
For example, taking into account the independent variable of the opponent’s movement during a competitive badminton game.

Question 22

What is the definition is insight learning?

Answer 22

Problem-solving involving memory.
Previous experiences are used to help solve new problems.

Question 23

What are the definitions of gestaltists?

Answer 23

A group of German scientists (including Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka) who established many principles of laws of perception. They extended these laws to provide accounts of learning and problem-solving.

Question 24

What is insight learning?

Answer 24

Cognitive theories are concerned with thinking and understanding rather than connecting certain stimuli to certain responses. Trial and error has no place in cognitive theory.

Question 25

What is the Glestalist theory?

Answer 25

Cognitive theorists recognise that we often learn taking into account our environment and what this means to us as individuals. They believe that we are continually receiving information from our surroundings and we work out what is happening using our memories and previous knowledge and understanding (or perception).

Question 26

What do Gestaltists think about our perceptions?

Answer 26

They think that we perceive objects as a whole, rather than a collection of parts.

Question 27

The cognitive view lends support of what type of practice and why?

Answer 27

Whole practice teaching
Athletes playing the game understand what is required in a game situation rather than learning different components of a skill. This allows for lots of sporting experiences, which aids motor development.

Question 28

What is the ‘highest’ form of learning and why?

Answer 28

Cognitive learning as it needs mental reasoning and intelligence.

Question 29

What is a practical example of the cognitive learning theory?

Answer 29

A cricketer who learns to swing the ball when bowling by understanding the basic mechanics of this movement is using cognitive learning, although she might not know it.

A basketball player who has the benefits of the zone defence explained to him and therefore understands when it is necessary to play this tactic.

Question 30

What is the definition of social learning?

Answer 30

A perceptive on personality theory that suggests personality and associated behaviour are determined by the situation or social environment rather than a series of traits or biological pre-determinants. This theory shows that our personalities are created through a process of observing others and imitating their behaviour, especially of social reinforcement is present.

Question 31

What is the definition of significant others?

Answer 31

People who are highly significant to us, often called role models. Even if we may not agree with their behaviour, we have a tendency to copy them. Their behaviour represents what we should ourselves be doing and therefore we copy and imitate it.

Question 32

Social learning is also known as what?

Answer 32

Observational learning

Question 33

What is the process of social learning?

Answer 33

We observe and copy behaviour because it helps us to be part of a group and be more socially acceptable.

Question 34

How is social learning linked to the acquisition of motor skills?

Answer 34

We copy the skills performed by others because we are motivated to achieve success and because of our drive to be accepted by others.

Question 35

What do we learn during observational learning?

Answer 35

The person who is being observed is the model. What we learn depends not only on what we see but also on the identity of the model.
It is not just about imitating actions - it is also about adopting moral judgements and patterns of social organisation.

Question 36

What is the definition of cueing?

Answer 36

Identifying important cues or stimuli.
E.G. watching the arm of your opponents when receiving a serve in tennis.

Question 37

According to Bandura (1977), copying or modelling can affect our performance through what 4 processes?

Answer 37

1. attention
2. retention
3. motor reproduction
4. motivation

Question 38

According to Bandura, how can attention affect our performance?

Answer 38

To be able to imitate a demonstration, the performer must pay attention to the demonstration and focus on important cues (this is called cueing). The amount of attention paid will be influenced by the perceived attractiveness of the model, the competence of the model and the status of the model. The personal characteristics of the observer and the incentives that are present are also important influences.

Question 39

According to Bandura, how can retention affect our performance?

Answer 39

The observer must be able to remember the model that is presented. Therefore, he or she needs to create a mental picture of the process. Mental rehearsal can improve retention of this mental image.

Question 40

According to Bandura, how can motor reproduction affect our performance?

Answer 40

The observer must be physically able to imitate the skill being observed. Demonstrations should therefore be matched to the capabilities of the observer. Feedback during future practices will be important if motor reproduction is to eventually match the model.

Question 41

According to Bandura, how can motivation affect our performance?

Answer 41

The level of motivation of the observer is crucial if they are going to imitate the performance. External reinforcement of the model will increase the motivation to imitate it.