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biology > 3.6 - immunology > Flashcards

3.6 - immunology Flashcards

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1
Q

what’s a pathogenic organism

A

organism that has ability to cause damage to a host

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2
Q

what’s an infectious disease

A

a disease that can be transmitted between indiviudals

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3
Q

define carrier

A

infected individual that is asymptomatic but can spread the disease

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4
Q

what is the disease reservoir

A

environment (host) in which an infectious pathogen is found

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5
Q

define endemic

A

disease ever-present in an area

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6
Q

define epidemic

A

rapid rise in incidence of a communicable disease at a local or national level

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7
Q

what’s a pandemic

A

epidemic that occurs worldwide, affecting large number of individuals

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8
Q

define vaccination

A

deliberate exposure of an individual to non-pathogenic forms, antigens or products of pathogens to provide artificial active immunity

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9
Q

what’s an antibiotic

A

chemical or compound produced by a living organism that kills or prevents the growth of bacteria

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10
Q

what’s an antigen

A

chemical present on the surface of a cell that induces an immune repsonse

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11
Q

define antibodies

A

immunoglobulins produced by B-lymphocytes in response to a specific immune antigen, triggering an immune repsonse

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12
Q

what are antibiotic-resistant bacteria

A

bacteria that mutate to become resistant to an antibiotic, survive + reproduce v rapidly, passing on their antibiotic resistance

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13
Q

define vector

A

living or non-living agent that transmits pathogen between organisms

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14
Q

what’s a toxin

A

substance produced by pathogen that causes damage to host

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15
Q

what are antigenic types

A

organisms that possess same or similar antigens on their surface, e.g: strains of bacteria

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16
Q

how are antigenic types usually identified

A

using antibodies from serum

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17
Q

what’s a host

A

organism from which a pathogen or parasite obtains nutrients and/or shelter

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18
Q

examples of bacterial infections

A
  • cholera
  • tuberculosis
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19
Q

what’s cholera

A

disease caused by strains of gram negative bacterium, vibrio cholerae
toxins of which cause severe diarrhoea leading to dehydration

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20
Q

how is cholera spread

A
  • fecal/oral transmission
  • ingesting contaminated food/water
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21
Q

how is cholera treated

A
  • rehydration
  • antibiotics
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22
Q

what’s tuberculosis

A

bacterial disease, caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis + m. bovis
damages lymph nodes in lungs + neck, weakening immune system

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23
Q

how is tuberculosis transmitted

A

airborne droplet transmission

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24
Q

describe the methods of tuberculosis prevention + treatment

A

prevention - BCG vaccination of children
treatment - extensive course of antibitoics

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25
Q

examples of viral infections

A
  • influenza
  • smallpox
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26
Q

how is the influenza virus transmitted

A
  • droplet infection
  • contact w/ contaminated surfaces
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27
Q

what tissue is affected by influenza

A

upper respiratory tract

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28
Q

describe the symptoms of influenza

A

headache, coughing, sneezing, sore throat, vomiting, fever, muscular + joint pain
may cause secondary bacterial infections

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29
Q

how is influenza treated

A
  • quarantine
  • antiviral medication
  • antibiotics treat secondary bacterial infections
  • management of symptoms, eg: painkillers
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30
Q

what is smallpox

A

disease caused by virus variola major that affects skin + multiple other organs

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31
Q

how is smallpox spread

A
  • droplet transmission
  • bodily fluids
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32
Q

describe the symptoms of smallpox

A

headache, fever, + pockmarking of skin

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33
Q

describe how smallpox has been eradicated

A

due to successful vaccination program

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34
Q

what properties of smallpox made its eradication possible

A
  • little variation in antigens
  • low rate of antigenic mutation
  • immunogenic nature of antigens
  • no animal resevoir
35
Q

example of protoctista infection

A

malaria

36
Q

name the malarial parasite

A

plasmodium spp.

37
Q

outline mode of transmission + infection of plasmodium spp. parasite

A
  • female mosquito acts as vector when transferring saliva to another organism during feeding
  • parasite reproduces asexually in red blood cells in liver, causing lysis
38
Q

describe effects of malaria on infected individual

A

causes recurrent episode of fever + can be fatal

39
Q

how is endemic malaria controlled

A

preventing mosquito bites - mosquito nets, insect repellent
controlling mosquito numbers - pesticides, chemical treatment of standing water + sewage, introduction of predators for mosquitos
drug treatment

40
Q

what are viruses

A

non-living infectious agents that invade host cells + take over cell metabolism, replicating within them

41
Q

outline the forms that the pathogenicity of viruses can take

A
  • cell lysis
  • cell transformation
  • production of toxins
  • immune system suppression
42
Q

what’s cell lysis

A
  • disruption of cell membranes, destroying the cell
  • virions released
43
Q

describe cell transformation

A

viruses can stimulate healthy cells to become cancerous

44
Q

example of virus that suppresses immune system of host

A

HIV

45
Q

state the 2 types of antibiotics

A
  • bacteriostatic
  • bactericidial
46
Q

how do bacteriostatic antibiotic work

A

prevent bacteria growing by interfering w/ processes required for growth such as metabolism or DNA replication

47
Q

what are bactericidal antibiotics

A

antibiotics that kill bacteria

48
Q

what’s a narrow spectrum antibiotic

A

antibiotic only effective against narrow range of bacteria

49
Q

what’s a broad spectrum antibiotic

A

antibiotic that targets wide range of bacteria

50
Q

what are bacterial cell wall made up of

A

3D mesh of peptidoglycan (murein), polymer of amino acids + sugars

51
Q

define gram positive bacteria

A

bacteria that have thick peptidoglycan wall + purple appearance following gram staining

52
Q

define gram negative bacteria

A

bacteria that have thin peptidoglycan wall + outer lipopolysaccharide membrane + red appearance following gram staining

53
Q

what type of antibiotic is penicillin

A

narrow spectrum antibiotic

54
Q

describe how penicillin affects bacteria

A
  • kills gram positive bacteria + damages gram negative bacteria
  • prevents formation of cross links between molecules in peptidoglycan wall, so when osmotic changes occur, cell undergoes lysis
55
Q

how does penicillin prevent formation of cross links in peptidoglycan wall

A
  • transpeptidase catalyses formation of cros links in peptidoglycan wall
  • penicillin is competitive inhibitor of transpeptidase
56
Q

why doesn’t penicillin kill gram negative bacteria

A

gram negative don’t completely lose cell walls due to presence of outer lipopolysaccharide membrane

57
Q

what type of antibiotic is tetracycline

A

broad spectrum antibiotic

58
Q

describe effect of tetracycline on bacteria

A
  • inhibits translation during protein synthesis
  • competitive inhibitor of anticodon binding site on 30S ribosomal subunits, preventing formation of new proteins
59
Q

why do antibiotics not affect viruses

A

viruses dont have metabolic pathways

60
Q

why are some bacteria resistant to treatment by antibiotics

A
  1. random genetic mutation, often on plasmid, confers resistance, e.g: antigen shape changes
  2. these bacteria have selective advantage in presence of antibiotics, reproduce + pass allele for resistance to offspring
  3. directional selection results in resistant strain
61
Q

what are natural barriers

A

defences always present + same for all organisms

62
Q

outline the natural defences in the body that reduce risk of infection

A

skin - protective layer
skin flora - protection from harmful pathogens, compete w/ them for nutrients
blood clotting - seals wounds
lysozymes - tears, hydrolyse bacterial cell walls
hydrochloric acid - stomach, kills bacteria
mucous membranes - trap pathogen + may secret antimicrobial enzymes
phagocytosis - destroys pathogens
inflammation - localises + eliminates cause of injury

63
Q

describe the specific immune response

A
  • second line of défense against pathogens triggered by foreign antigens
  • 2 types: humoral immune response + cell-mediated immune response
64
Q

what are T-lymphocytes

A

lymphocytes that mature in thymus gland

65
Q

what are B lymphocytes

A

lymphocytes produced in bone marrow + mature in spleen + lymph nodes

66
Q

outline the process of cell-mediated repsonse

A
  1. complementary T helper lymphocytes bind to foreign antigens on antigen-presenting cell
  2. T cells undergo clonal expansion
  3. three main types of T lymphocytes produced:
    - T effector cells
    - T helper cells
    - T memory cells
67
Q

explain the role of antigen-presenting cells

A
  • macrophage displays antigen from pathogen on its surface (after hydrolysis in phagocytosis)
  • enhances recognition by T helper cells, which can’t directly interface w/ pathogens/antigens in body fluid
  • secrete cytokines that are involved in stimulating specific immune repsonse
68
Q

what are T effector cells

A
  • T killer cells or cytotoxic T lymphocytes
  • causes lysis of damaged or infected cells
69
Q

describe the role of T helper cells

A
  • regulate immune response through release of cytokines
  • cytokines stimulate proliferation of B lymphocytes
70
Q

describe the role of T memory cells

A

remain in blood + provide immunological memory

71
Q

outline the process of the humoral repsonse

A
  1. complementary T helper lymphocytes bind to foreign antigens on antigen-present T cells
  2. cytokines released that stimulate clonal expansion of complementary B lymphocytes
  3. B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells
  4. plasma cells secrete antibodies w/ complementary variable region to antigen
  5. antibodies destroy pathogen
72
Q

describe structure of an antibody

A
  • y shaped
  • 2 light chains bonded to 2 longer heavy chains
  • 2 binding sites
  • specific to particular antigen
73
Q

compare the primary + secondary immune responses

A

primary - initial response when pathogen is first encountered, small number of antibodies produced slowly
secondary - pathogen encountered for second (third, fourth… etc) time, immunological memory gives rapid production of large number of antibodies

74
Q

what’s happening during latent period of primary immune repsonse

A
  • antigen presenting cells carrying out phagocytosis
  • T helper cell detect antigens + secret cytokines
  • proliferation + differentiation of specific B + T cells
75
Q

define active immunity

A

resistance in organism that has developed through production of specific antibodies in response to pathogen
provides long lasting immunity as memory cells are produced

76
Q

what are the 2 types of active immunity

A

natural - production of antibodies by immune system following infection
artificial - production o antibodies by immune system following exposure to weakened, attenuated or dead pathogen

77
Q

example of artificial active immunity

A

vaccination

78
Q

how do vaccinations that use antigens provide long lasting immunity

A
  • antigens in vaccine trigger primary immune response w/out infection
  • if pathogen encountered, secondary immune response destroys pathogen before symptoms develop
79
Q

define passive immunity

A

resistance in organism acquired via transfer of antibodies
provides short term immunity as no memory cells produced

80
Q

what are the 2 types of passive immunity

A

natural - immunity acquired by infant mammal when antibodies transferred though placenta + colostrum from mother
artificial - immunity acquired from administration of specific antibodies from another organsim

81
Q

example of artificial passive immunity

A

treatment of rabies

82
Q

how do vaccinations that use antibodies provide short term immunity

A
  • antibodies give rapid protection against harmful microorganism
  • allows time for development of active immune response
83
Q

describe the different levels of effectiveness of vaccination programmes against different diseases

A
  • single round of vaccination protects against pathogens that have low level of antigenic variation/mutation, e.g: rubella
  • repeated vaccinations used against pathogens that have various antigenic types + mutate frequently, e.g: influenza
84
Q

outline the ethical considerations that must be considered when designing vaccination programmes

A
  • cost of developing vaccine
  • effectiveness of vaccine
  • rights of individual vs rights of entire population to be protected
  • possible side effects
  • religious concerns
  • testing on animals + unaffected individuals

biology (24 decks)

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